AQA A-Level Psychology: Social Influence, Memory, Attachment and Psychopathology Revision Guide

AQA A-Level Psychology Paper 1 -- Introductory Topics in Psychology -- is worth 33.3% of the overall qualification. It covers four major topic areas: Social Influence, Memory, Attachment and Psychopathology. Each section carries 24 marks, adding up to 96 marks across a two-hour exam. Whether you are sitting the full A-Level (7182) or beginning your revision early, a solid grasp of these four topics is essential for a strong overall grade.

This guide provides an overview of the key content, theories and studies you need to know for each section, along with pointers on how to approach evaluation and extended writing questions.

Understanding the Exam Structure

Before diving into content, it helps to understand how AQA A-Level Psychology is assessed. The qualification consists of three papers, each lasting two hours and worth 96 marks (33.3% of the total):

Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology -- Social Influence, Memory, Attachment, Psychopathology
Paper 2: Psychology in Context -- Approaches in Psychology, Biopsychology, Research Methods
Paper 3: Issues and Options in Psychology -- Issues and Debates plus three option topics chosen by your centre

Each topic section within a paper is worth 24 marks. Question types range from multiple choice and short answer questions to extended writing tasks. The extended writing questions are particularly important -- they come in 12-mark and 16-mark essay formats and require you to demonstrate both knowledge and evaluation skills (AO1 and AO3).

For Paper 1, you should expect a mixture of these question types across all four sections. Practising essay plans for each topic is one of the most effective ways to prepare.

Social Influence

Social influence examines how individuals are affected by the real or implied presence of others. This section covers conformity, obedience, resistance to social influence, minority influence and social change.

Types of Conformity

Kelman (1958) identified three types of conformity. Compliance is the shallowest form -- a person publicly agrees with the group but privately maintains their own view. Identification occurs when a person conforms to the views of a group because they value membership of that group, even if they do not privately agree. Internalisation is the deepest form of conformity, where a person genuinely accepts the group's views and incorporates them into their own belief system.

Explanations for Conformity

Two key explanations underpin conformity. Informational social influence (ISI) occurs when a person conforms because they believe others have better knowledge or information -- this is most common in ambiguous situations. Normative social influence (NSI) occurs when a person conforms to fit in with a group and avoid rejection -- this is driven by the desire to be liked and accepted.

Asch's Research on Conformity

Solomon Asch (1951) conducted line-judgement experiments in which participants were asked to match the length of a standard line to one of three comparison lines. Confederates gave unanimously incorrect answers on critical trials. Asch found that roughly 75% of participants conformed at least once, with an overall conformity rate of about 37%. His variations showed that conformity decreased when a dissenter was present, increased with larger group sizes (up to a point), and increased when the task was made more difficult. Strengths of the research include its controlled laboratory setting, but it has been criticised for lacking ecological validity and for being a product of its time (1950s America).

Conformity to Social Roles -- Zimbardo

Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment (1973) assigned volunteer participants to the roles of guards or prisoners in a simulated prison. Guards quickly became authoritarian and even abusive, while prisoners became passive, anxious and distressed. The study was terminated after just six days instead of the planned two weeks. It demonstrates the powerful influence of social roles on behaviour. However, the study raises serious ethical concerns -- participants experienced genuine psychological harm -- and has been criticised for demand characteristics and Zimbardo's dual role as researcher and prison superintendent.

Milgram's Obedience Research

Stanley Milgram (1963) investigated obedience by asking participants to administer what they believed were electric shocks to a learner (a confederate) in a word-association task. In the original study, 65% of participants obeyed to the maximum 450-volt level. Milgram conducted several variations: obedience dropped when the experiment was moved to a run-down office block, when the experimenter gave instructions by telephone, and when the participant was in the same room as the learner. The research is highly significant for understanding real-world obedience, though it has been criticised on ethical grounds and for the artificial nature of the procedure.

Explanations for Obedience

The agentic state theory suggests that people shift from an autonomous state to an agentic state when they perceive themselves as agents carrying out someone else's wishes, thereby feeling less personally responsible. The legitimacy of authority explanation proposes that people obey those they perceive as having legitimate power or status within a social hierarchy -- for example, a scientist in a laboratory setting.

Resistance to Social Influence

Not everyone conforms or obeys. Social support -- the presence of an ally who also resists -- significantly reduces both conformity and obedience. Rotter's concept of locus of control is also relevant: individuals with a strong internal locus of control (who believe they are responsible for their own outcomes) tend to be more resistant to social pressure than those with an external locus.

Minority Influence

Moscovici (1969) demonstrated that minorities can influence the majority when they are consistent in their position, show commitment (for example, through personal sacrifice) and demonstrate flexibility by being open to reasonable discussion. Moscovici's blue-green slide experiment showed that a consistent minority could shift the majority's judgements. This links to the broader concept of social change, where minority views gradually become accepted through processes such as the snowball effect and social cryptomnesia.

Memory

The memory section covers theoretical models of memory, types of long-term memory, explanations for forgetting, and the applied topic of eyewitness testimony.

The Multi-Store Model

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed the multi-store model, which describes memory as flowing through three stores. The sensory register receives information from the senses and holds it very briefly (less than half a second for iconic memory, up to a few seconds for echoic memory). Information that is attended to passes into short-term memory (STM), which has a limited capacity (around 7 plus or minus 2 items) and a short duration (approximately 18--30 seconds without rehearsal). Through rehearsal, information can be transferred into long-term memory (LTM), which has potentially unlimited capacity and duration. The model is supported by case studies such as HM and by research on the serial position effect, but it has been criticised for over-simplifying both STM and LTM as single, unitary stores.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Tulving (1985) proposed that LTM comprises at least three distinct types. Episodic memory stores personal experiences and events, including contextual details such as time and place. Semantic memory holds general knowledge and facts about the world, independent of personal experience. Procedural memory stores knowledge of how to perform skilled actions, such as riding a bicycle -- this type of memory is largely implicit and difficult to explain verbally. Evidence from brain-scan studies and case studies of amnesia supports the distinction between these types.

The Working Memory Model

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed the working memory model as an alternative to the concept of a single STM store. The central executive directs attention and coordinates the activities of the subsystems. The phonological loop processes auditory and verbal information, and consists of a phonological store and an articulatory rehearsal process. The visuo-spatial sketchpad processes visual and spatial information. Baddeley (2000) later added the episodic buffer, which integrates information from the other components and links to LTM. The model is supported by dual-task studies showing that two visual tasks interfere with each other more than a visual and a verbal task. A limitation is that the role of the central executive remains somewhat vague.

Explanations for Forgetting

Interference theory explains forgetting from LTM. Proactive interference occurs when older memories disrupt the recall of newer information, while retroactive interference occurs when newer learning disrupts the recall of older memories. Retrieval failure suggests that information is available in LTM but cannot be accessed because appropriate cues are absent. Context-dependent forgetting occurs when the external environment at recall differs from the environment at encoding, while state-dependent forgetting occurs when a person's internal state (such as mood or level of alertness) differs between encoding and recall. Tulving's encoding specificity principle underpins these ideas.

Eyewitness Testimony

Eyewitness testimony (EWT) can be unreliable. Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrated the effect of misleading information -- changing a single verb in a critical question (for example, "smashed" versus "hit") significantly affected participants' speed estimates and even their recall of whether broken glass was present. The weapon focus effect illustrates how anxiety can narrow attention -- witnesses tend to focus on a weapon rather than the perpetrator's face, reducing the accuracy of identification. However, some research (such as Christianson and Hubinette, 1993) suggests that high anxiety can sometimes enhance recall for central details of an event.

The Cognitive Interview

Fisher and Geiselman (1992) developed the cognitive interview technique to improve the accuracy of eyewitness accounts. It involves four components: mental reinstatement of context, reporting everything (even seemingly trivial details), recalling events in a changed order, and changing perspective. Research generally supports its effectiveness compared to standard police interviews, though it is more time-consuming and requires additional training for officers.

Attachment

Attachment focuses on the formation of emotional bonds between infants and caregivers, the consequences of disruption to those bonds, and the influence of early attachment on later development.

Caregiver-Infant Interactions

Early interactions between caregivers and infants involve reciprocity -- a turn-taking pattern where both caregiver and infant respond to each other's signals -- and interactional synchrony, where caregiver and infant mirror each other's actions and emotions in a coordinated way. These interactions are thought to be important for the development of attachment.

Stages of Attachment

Schaffer and Emerson (1964) conducted a longitudinal study of 60 Glasgow infants and identified stages of attachment development: the asocial stage, the indiscriminate attachment stage, the specific (or primary) attachment stage, and the multiple attachments stage. Their findings suggested that the primary attachment figure was not always the mother and that the quality of interaction mattered more than the quantity of time spent together.

Animal Studies of Attachment

Lorenz (1935) demonstrated imprinting in greylag geese, showing that goslings form an attachment to the first moving object they encounter during a critical period shortly after hatching. Harlow (1958) studied rhesus monkeys raised with wire and cloth surrogate mothers, finding that infant monkeys preferred the cloth-covered surrogate even when the wire surrogate provided food. This demonstrated the importance of contact comfort over feeding in attachment formation. Both studies provide valuable insights, though generalising from animal research to humans requires caution.

Explanations of Attachment

Learning theory (the behaviourist explanation) proposes that attachment forms through classical conditioning (the caregiver becomes associated with food) and operant conditioning (the infant's behaviour is reinforced by the caregiver meeting its needs). However, Harlow's findings challenge the idea that food is the primary basis of attachment. Bowlby's monotropic theory proposes that attachment is an innate, biological process and that infants have an innate tendency to form one primary attachment (monotropy). Bowlby suggested that this attachment develops during a critical period (approximately the first two and a half years) and that the quality of the primary attachment creates an internal working model -- a mental template that shapes expectations for future relationships.

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Ainsworth (1970) developed the Strange Situation to assess attachment type in infants aged 12--18 months. It involves a series of episodes including separations from and reunions with the caregiver and encounters with a stranger. Three main types of attachment were identified: secure attachment (Type B), characterised by moderate distress on separation and positive greeting on reunion; insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A), characterised by little distress on separation and avoidance of the caregiver on reunion; and insecure-resistant attachment (Type C), characterised by intense distress and ambivalent behaviour on reunion.

Cultural Variations in Attachment

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) conducted a meta-analysis of Strange Situation studies across multiple countries. They found that secure attachment was the most common type across all cultures, but there were notable variations -- for example, insecure-avoidant attachment was more common in Western European countries such as Germany, while insecure-resistant attachment was more common in Japan and Israel. However, variation within cultures was often greater than variation between cultures, and the Strange Situation itself may reflect Western cultural assumptions.

Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis

Bowlby (1953) argued that prolonged separation from the primary attachment figure during the critical period could have lasting negative effects on emotional and intellectual development. He used evidence from his study of 44 juvenile thieves, in which he found a link between early maternal deprivation and affectionless psychopathy. The hypothesis has been criticised for confusing deprivation (loss of an attachment figure) with privation (never having formed an attachment in the first place).

Romanian Orphan Studies

Rutter's English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) study followed Romanian orphans who had experienced severe institutional privation before being adopted by British families. Children adopted before six months showed significant recovery, while those adopted after six months were more likely to show lasting effects such as disinhibited attachment. This research suggests that the effects of early privation can be mitigated if intervention occurs early enough, but also that there may be long-term consequences when privation extends beyond a sensitive period.

Early Attachment and Later Relationships

Bowlby's concept of the internal working model proposes that the quality of early attachment influences expectations about relationships throughout life. Research by Hazan and Shaver (1987) found correlations between adult attachment styles and childhood attachment types, supporting the idea of continuity. However, this is not deterministic -- individuals can develop "earned security" through positive later experiences.

Psychopathology

Psychopathology examines definitions of abnormality and the characteristics, explanations and treatments of three mental health conditions: phobias, depression and OCD.

Definitions of Abnormality

The specification covers four definitions. Statistical infrequency defines abnormality as behaviour that is statistically rare. Deviation from social norms defines it as behaviour that violates accepted social standards. Failure to function adequately focuses on whether a person can cope with everyday life. Deviation from ideal mental health (Jahoda, 1958) defines abnormality as the absence of positive criteria such as autonomy, self-actualisation and accurate perception of reality. Each definition has strengths and limitations -- for example, statistical infrequency fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable rare behaviours, while social norms vary across cultures and time periods.

Characteristics of Phobias, Depression and OCD

You need to know the emotional, behavioural and cognitive characteristics of each condition. Phobias are characterised by persistent, excessive fear (emotional), avoidance behaviour (behavioural) and irrational beliefs about the feared stimulus (cognitive). Depression involves low mood and loss of pleasure (emotional), changes in sleep, appetite and activity levels (behavioural), and negative thinking patterns (cognitive). OCD involves anxiety and distress (emotional), compulsive behaviours performed to reduce anxiety (behavioural), and recurrent, intrusive obsessive thoughts (cognitive).

The Behavioural Approach to Phobias

The two-process model (Mowrer, 1947) explains phobias through classical conditioning (the phobia is acquired when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with fear) and operant conditioning (the phobia is maintained because avoidance reduces anxiety, which is negatively reinforcing). Behavioural treatments include systematic desensitisation, which uses a hierarchy of feared stimuli paired with relaxation techniques to gradually reduce the fear response, and flooding, which involves immediate exposure to the most feared stimulus. Both treatments are supported by research evidence, though flooding can be highly distressing and has higher dropout rates.

The Cognitive Approach to Depression

Beck's negative triad (1967) proposes that depressed individuals hold negative views about themselves, the world and the future, which are maintained by cognitive biases such as overgeneralisation and catastrophising. Ellis's ABC model suggests that depression results not from activating events (A) themselves, but from irrational beliefs (B) about those events, which produce emotional and behavioural consequences (C). Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) aims to identify and challenge these negative or irrational thought patterns and replace them with more realistic and adaptive ones. CBT has a strong evidence base and is recommended by NICE guidelines, though it may be less effective for severe depression and requires the client to be motivated and engaged.

The Biological Approach to OCD

Biological explanations for OCD include genetic factors -- research suggests that OCD runs in families, and candidate genes such as the COMT gene and SERT gene have been identified, though OCD is polygenic and no single gene is responsible. Neural explanations focus on abnormal functioning of the orbitofrontal cortex and associated brain circuits, as well as low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Drug therapy -- specifically SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) -- works by increasing serotonin levels in the synapse. SSRIs are effective for many patients and are relatively cost-effective, but they can produce side effects and do not address the underlying cause of the condition.

Exam Tips for Paper 1

Plan your essays carefully. For 12-mark and 16-mark questions, aim for a clear structure with balanced AO1 (knowledge) and AO3 (evaluation). A 16-mark essay typically includes 6 marks of AO1 and 10 marks of AO3.
Use research evidence. Citing specific studies (with researchers and dates) strengthens both your descriptions and evaluations.
Practise applying knowledge. Some questions will present a scenario and ask you to apply your understanding to it -- practise this skill with past papers.
Know the methodological issues. Being able to evaluate studies in terms of validity, reliability, ethics, generalisability and demand characteristics is essential.
Manage your time. With 96 marks in 120 minutes, you have roughly one minute and fifteen seconds per mark. Do not spend too long on short-answer questions at the expense of the higher-value essays.

Prepare with LearningBro

Ready to put your knowledge to the test? Our interactive courses cover all the Paper 1 content and include practice questions to help you consolidate your revision:

Use these resources alongside your class notes and past papers to build confidence across every topic in Paper 1. Consistent, active revision -- testing yourself, writing practice essays and reviewing your weaker areas -- is the most effective way to achieve the grade you are aiming for.