First-Class and Higher-Order Functions

Two of the most important concepts in functional programming are first-class functions and higher-order functions. Understanding these is essential for A-Level Computer Science and forms the basis of many functional programming techniques.

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First-Class Functions

A language has first-class functions (also called first-class objects or first-class citizens) if functions can be treated like any other value. Specifically, functions can be:

1. Assigned to variables.
2. Passed as arguments to other functions.
3. Returned as results from other functions.
4. Stored in data structures (lists, dictionaries, etc.).

Examples in Python

# 1. Assigning a function to a variable
def greet(name):
    return f"Hello, {name}!"

say_hello = greet  # Assign function to variable
print(say_hello("Alice"))  # Output: Hello, Alice!

# 2. Passing a function as an argument
def apply(func, value):
    return func(value)

result = apply(greet, "Bob")
print(result)  # Output: Hello, Bob!

# 3. Returning a function from a function
def make_multiplier(factor):
    def multiplier(x):
        return x * factor
    return multiplier

double = make_multiplier(2)
triple = make_multiplier(3)
print(double(5))  # Output: 10
print(triple(5))  # Output: 15

# 4. Storing functions in a list
operations = [double, triple]
for op in operations:
    print(op(4))  # Outputs: 8, then 12