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More than half the world's population speaks more than one language. Bilingualism and multilingualism are the global norm, not the exception — yet much research into child language acquisition has focused on monolingual children. This lesson examines how children acquire two or more languages, the cognitive and linguistic implications of bilingualism, and the key theories and debates in this area. While bilingualism is not always a core focus of the AQA specification, it is a topic that may arise in data analysis or extended response questions.
Key Definition: Bilingualism — the ability to use two languages in everyday communication. Bilingualism exists on a spectrum, from balanced bilinguals (equally proficient in both languages) to dominant bilinguals (more proficient in one language). Multilingualism extends this to three or more languages.
It is important to recognise that bilingualism is not a simple either/or category. Key distinctions include:
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simultaneous bilingualism | A child is exposed to two languages from birth | A child whose mother speaks English and father speaks Spanish from day one |
| Sequential bilingualism | A child acquires a first language (L1) and later begins to learn a second language (L2) | A child who speaks Urdu at home and begins learning English when they start school at age 4 |
| Balanced bilingualism | Approximately equal proficiency in both languages across all contexts | Relatively rare — most bilinguals are stronger in one language |
| Dominant bilingualism | Greater proficiency in one language than the other | Common — the dominant language often reflects the community or school language |
| Receptive bilingualism | Can understand a second language but cannot (or chooses not to) produce it | A child who understands their grandparents' language but always replies in English |
Children exposed to two languages from birth typically pass through similar stages to monolingual children, though there are some important differences:
| Stage | Age (approx.) | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Undifferentiated system | 0–2 years | Some researchers (e.g. Volterra and Taeschner, 1978) proposed that bilingual children initially have a single, fused linguistic system and do not distinguish between their two languages |
| Differentiation | 2–3 years | Children begin to separate their two language systems, using each language in appropriate contexts |
| Full differentiation | 3+ years | Children clearly distinguish between their two languages and can switch appropriately according to context and interlocutor |
However, more recent research (e.g. Genesee, 1989; De Houwer, 1990) has challenged the "single system" hypothesis, providing evidence that bilingual children differentiate their two languages from the very beginning, even if they sometimes mix elements from both.
Key Definition: Simultaneous bilingualism — the acquisition of two languages from birth (or before the age of 3). Research suggests that simultaneously bilingual children achieve similar developmental milestones to monolinguals, though they may take slightly longer to build vocabulary in each individual language.
One of the most notable features of bilingual language use is code-switching — alternating between two languages within a single conversation or even within a single sentence.
| Term | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Code-switching | Switching between languages at sentence boundaries or between conversational turns | "I'm going to the shop. Quieres algo?" (Do you want anything?) |
| Code-mixing | Mixing elements from two languages within a single sentence | "Can you pass me the lait?" (milk — French) |
Code-switching is not a sign of confusion or linguistic deficiency. Research has identified several communicative functions:
Key Definition: Code-switching — the practice of alternating between two or more languages within a single conversation, turn, or sentence. Far from being a sign of confusion, code-switching is a sophisticated communicative strategy that requires competence in both languages and sensitivity to social context.
Jim Cummins (1979, 1984) developed several influential frameworks for understanding bilingualism in educational contexts:
| Concept | Full Name | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| BICS | Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills | The conversational fluency needed for everyday social interaction — context-embedded, cognitively undemanding | Chatting with friends on the playground; ordering food in a restaurant |
| CALP | Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency | The language skills needed for academic learning — context-reduced, cognitively demanding | Understanding a science textbook; writing an essay; following a lecture |
Cummins argued that bilingual children often develop BICS relatively quickly (within 1–3 years of exposure) but may take 5–7 years to develop CALP in their second language. This has important implications for education:
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