The Global Commons
The global commons are areas and resources that lie beyond the jurisdiction of any single nation-state and are shared by all of humanity. Their governance is one of the most significant challenges in international relations and is a key topic in AQA A-Level Geography.
Key Definition: The global commons are areas or resources that are not owned by any single state and are available to all. They include the high seas, the atmosphere, Antarctica, and outer space. Their governance requires international cooperation.
Defining the Global Commons
The Four Global Commons
| Commons | Key Features | Governing Framework |
|---|
| The High Seas | Ocean areas beyond national jurisdiction (beyond 200 nautical miles from shore) | UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) |
| The Atmosphere | The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth, shared by all | UNFCCC, Paris Agreement, Montreal Protocol |
| Antarctica | The continent and surrounding waters south of 60°S | Antarctic Treaty System |
| Outer Space | Space beyond Earth's atmosphere | Outer Space Treaty (1967) |
Why Are the Global Commons Important?
- They contain vital resources — fisheries, minerals, biodiversity, climate-regulating systems
- They provide essential ecosystem services — the oceans absorb approximately 30% of human CO₂ emissions; the atmosphere distributes heat and moisture
- They are increasingly threatened by human activity — overfishing, pollution, climate change, resource extraction
- Their governance raises fundamental questions about sovereignty, equity, and collective responsibility
The Tragedy of the Commons
The concept of the tragedy of the commons was popularised by Garrett Hardin in a 1968 article in Science. It describes a situation where shared resources are overexploited because individuals act in their own self-interest rather than the collective good.
Hardin's Argument
- When a resource is shared and unregulated, each user has an incentive to maximise their own use
- The costs of overuse are shared by all, but the benefits accrue to the individual
- The result is the degradation or depletion of the shared resource — a tragedy for all
Example: Overfishing
- The high seas are a classic commons — no single country owns them
- Each fishing fleet has an incentive to catch as much as possible before competitors do
- The result: by 2023, the FAO estimated that approximately 35% of the world's fish stocks were overexploited
- Atlantic cod stocks off Newfoundland collapsed in 1992, destroying livelihoods and an ecosystem — a textbook tragedy of the commons
Critiques of Hardin's Thesis
- Elinor Ostrom (Nobel Prize in Economics, 2009) demonstrated that communities can and do manage commons sustainably through cooperation, rules, and social norms
- Hardin's argument assumes purely self-interested behaviour, ignoring the role of institutions, culture, and cooperation
- The tragedy of the commons is not inevitable — it depends on the governance framework in place
- Hardin's original article has been criticised for being used to justify privatisation of common resources
Antarctica: The Antarctic Treaty System
Antarctica is the most remote and least-populated continent, covering approximately 14 million km² — roughly twice the size of Australia. It is governed by the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), one of the most successful examples of international governance of a global commons.
The Antarctic Treaty (1959)
The Antarctic Treaty was signed by 12 nations (including the UK, USA, USSR, and Argentina) and came into force in 1961.
Key Provisions
- Peaceful purposes only — military activity, weapons testing, and nuclear explosions are prohibited
- Scientific freedom — all countries have the right to conduct scientific research in Antarctica
- Sovereignty claims frozen — seven countries have territorial claims (UK, Argentina, Chile, Norway, Australia, France, New Zealand), but these are neither recognised nor denied under the Treaty; no new claims can be made
- International cooperation — research stations share data and collaborate on scientific projects
- Environmental protection — the Madrid Protocol (1991) designates Antarctica as a 'natural reserve devoted to peace and science'
The Madrid Protocol (Protocol on Environmental Protection, 1991)
- Designates Antarctica as a natural reserve
- Bans mineral resource activities (mining and oil extraction) for a minimum of 50 years (until 2048)
- Requires Environmental Impact Assessments for all activities
- Establishes rules for waste disposal, wildlife protection, and marine pollution prevention
- Created the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP) to advise on environmental issues
Current Challenges