Energy Security and Environmental Sustainability

This lesson examines the global energy mix, the tension between fossil fuel dependence and the transition to renewables, the concept of energy security, energy poverty, and the pathways to a more sustainable energy future. Energy is deeply intertwined with population, food, water, and health — making it a crucial integrating theme in AQA A-Level Geography Paper 2.

---

Defining Energy Security

Key Definition: Energy security is the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price (IEA definition). It has both short-term dimensions (the ability to react promptly to sudden changes in supply-demand balance) and long-term dimensions (investment to supply energy in line with economic development and environmental needs).

Components of Energy Security

Component	Description
Availability	Sufficient energy resources exist and can be accessed
Affordability	Energy prices are manageable for consumers and industry
Reliability	Supply is consistent and not subject to frequent disruption
Sustainability	Energy is produced and consumed in ways that do not undermine environmental or social systems

---

The Global Energy Mix

The global energy mix describes the composition of primary energy sources used worldwide.

Global Primary Energy Consumption by Source (2023, BP Statistical Review / Energy Institute)

Source	Share of Global Energy (%)	Trend
Oil	31.2%	Slowly declining
Coal	26.5%	Peaked; declining in HICs but rising in some MICs
Natural gas	23.2%	Growing; seen as "bridge fuel"
Hydroelectric	6.7%	Steady
Nuclear	4.0%	Stable; new investment in some countries
Renewables (wind, solar, bioenergy)	8.4%	Rapid growth; solar capacity doubled 2020–2023

Key Statistic: Fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) still account for approximately 81% of global primary energy consumption, despite rapid renewable growth.

---

Fossil Fuels: Benefits and Costs

Oil

• The world's most traded commodity; global consumption approximately 100 million barrels per day (2023)
• Concentrated production: OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) controls approximately 40% of global output; The United States, Saudi Arabia, and Russia are the largest producers
• Geopolitical significance: oil price shocks (1973 OPEC embargo, 2022 Russia-Ukraine conflict) demonstrate vulnerability
• Environmental cost: combustion releases approximately 34 billion tonnes of CO₂ per year (Global Carbon Project, 2023)

Coal

• Historically the engine of industrialisation; remains critical for electricity generation in China (62% of electricity from coal), India (72%), and many developing countries
• The most carbon-intensive fossil fuel — emits approximately 2.3 kg CO₂ per kg burned
• UK coal use: the UK was the birthplace of the coal industry but closed its last coal-fired power station (Ratcliffe-on-Soar) in September 2024, becoming the first major economy to eliminate coal power

Natural Gas

• Often described as a "bridge fuel" because it produces approximately 50% less CO₂ per unit of energy than coal
• Growing share due to the shale gas revolution (especially in the USA — hydraulic fracturing/fracking)
• UK: North Sea gas production has declined; the UK became a net gas importer in 2004
• Environmental concerns: methane leakage during extraction and transport (methane is ~80 times more potent than CO₂ as a greenhouse gas over 20 years)

---

Renewable Energy

Types of Renewable Energy

Source	Technology	Advantages	Disadvantages
Solar	Photovoltaic (PV) panels, concentrated solar power (CSP)	Unlimited supply; rapidly falling costs (solar PV costs fell 89% between 2010 and 2023); low operating emissions	Intermittent (weather-dependent, no generation at night); land use; manufacturing requires rare earth minerals
Wind	Onshore and offshore turbines	Mature technology; competitive costs; offshore potential enormous	Intermittent; visual impact; noise; impacts on birds and bats
Hydroelectric	Dams and run-of-river schemes	Reliable baseload power; long lifespan; flood control	Requires specific topography; displacement; downstream ecological damage; sedimentation
Biomass/Bioenergy	Burning organic matter (wood, waste, crops) or converting to biogas	Carbon-neutral in theory; waste reduction	Land use competition with food; not truly zero-carbon when lifecycle emissions included; air pollution
Geothermal	Heat from the Earth's interior	Very reliable; low emissions; small footprint	Geographically limited (volcanic/tectonic areas); high drilling costs
Tidal/Wave	Marine turbines and wave energy converters	Predictable (unlike wind/solar); enormous potential	Early-stage technology; high costs; environmental impacts on marine life

UK Renewable Energy Progress

The UK has made significant progress in renewable energy deployment:

• In 2023, renewables generated approximately 47% of UK electricity (up from 7% in 2010)
• The UK is a world leader in offshore wind — Dogger Bank Wind Farm (under construction, North Sea) will be the world's largest offshore wind farm at 3.6 GW capacity
• Solar PV capacity has grown from virtually zero (2010) to approximately 15 GW (2023)
• The UK government committed to a fully decarbonised electricity grid by 2035

Exam Tip: When discussing renewables, avoid the common misconception that they are always environmentally benign. Discuss land use, mineral extraction (lithium, cobalt for batteries), intermittency, and the challenge of energy storage. This demonstrates evaluative thinking.

---

Energy Poverty

Key Definition: Energy poverty (or fuel poverty) is the condition in which a household is unable to afford adequate energy services for heating, cooking, and lighting. In LICs, this often means reliance on biomass fuels; in HICs, it typically means an inability to afford energy bills.

Global Energy Poverty

• Approximately 675 million people worldwide lack access to electricity (IEA, 2023)
• Approximately 2.3 billion people cook using solid fuels (wood, charcoal, dung) on open fires or inefficient stoves
• Indoor air pollution from solid fuel cooking causes approximately 3.8 million premature deaths per year (WHO)
• Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest electrification rate — approximately 48% of the population lacks electricity

UK Fuel Poverty