Global Food Systems

This lesson examines how food is produced, processed, distributed, and consumed at a global scale. You will study different agricultural systems, the role of agribusiness and commodity chains, debates around GM crops and organic farming, and the concept of food miles. This material supports AQA A-Level Geography Paper 2 content on resource security.

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Agricultural Production Systems

Food production systems can be classified along several dimensions:

By Level of Input and Output

System	Characteristics	Examples
Subsistence	Produces food primarily for the farmer's own family; little surplus for sale; low inputs	Shifting cultivation in the Amazon, paddy rice in Bangladesh
Commercial	Produces food primarily for sale and profit; market-oriented; higher inputs	Arable farming in East Anglia, cattle ranching in Argentina

By Intensity of Production

System	Characteristics	Examples
Intensive	High inputs (labour, capital, technology) per unit of land; high yields per hectare	Dutch greenhouse horticulture, Japanese rice farming
Extensive	Low inputs per unit of land; large areas of land used; lower yields per hectare	Australian sheep farming, Sahel pastoralism

By Type of Output

System	Focus	Examples
Arable	Crop production	Wheat farming in the Paris Basin, rice farming in the Ganges Delta
Pastoral	Livestock rearing	Hill sheep farming in Wales, dairy farming in New Zealand
Mixed	Both crops and livestock	Mixed farming in the English Midlands

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The Green Revolution

Background

The Green Revolution (1960s–1980s) was a period of rapid agricultural innovation that dramatically increased food production in developing countries, particularly in Asia and Latin America.

Key Components

1. High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs): new strains of wheat, rice, and maize bred to produce significantly higher yields
2. Irrigation: expansion of irrigated area to provide reliable water supply
3. Chemical fertilisers: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilisers to boost soil fertility
4. Pesticides and herbicides: to protect crops from pests and weeds
5. Mechanisation: tractors, combine harvesters, and other machinery to increase efficiency

Key Figures

• Norman Borlaug: American agronomist who developed semi-dwarf, high-yielding wheat varieties; awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970
• M.S. Swaminathan: Indian geneticist who led the Green Revolution in India
• IRRI (International Rice Research Institute): developed IR8, the "miracle rice" variety

Impact on Food Production

• India's wheat production increased from 12 million tonnes in 1965 to 95 million tonnes by 2023
• Global cereal production doubled between 1960 and 2000
• Famines in Asia declined significantly; India became self-sufficient in grain by the 1970s
• Calorie availability per person increased despite population growth

Criticisms

• Environmental damage: soil degradation, groundwater depletion, chemical pollution, loss of biodiversity
• Social inequality: benefited large landowners more than smallholders; many small farmers could not afford inputs
• Water crisis: irrigation demands depleted aquifers (e.g., Punjab groundwater decline)
• Monoculture risks: reduced crop diversity increased vulnerability to pest and disease outbreaks
• Debt and dependency: farmers became dependent on purchased seeds, fertilisers, and pesticides
• Regional inequality: Africa largely missed the Green Revolution due to different crops, soils, and lack of infrastructure

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Food Chains and Commodity Chains

The Food Supply Chain

Food moves from producer to consumer through a series of stages:

1. Production: farming, fishing, or gathering
2. Processing: cleaning, sorting, packaging, and transformation (e.g., wheat → flour → bread)
3. Distribution: transport, storage, and logistics
4. Retail: supermarkets, markets, restaurants, online delivery
5. Consumption: purchase and consumption by individuals and households
6. Waste: food waste at every stage of the chain

Commodity Chains

A commodity chain traces the full journey of a product from raw material to consumer, including all the economic actors and value added at each stage.

Example: Coffee Commodity Chain

Stage	Actor	Value Captured
Growing	Smallholder farmer (e.g., Ethiopia)	1–3% of retail price
Processing	Local processor/exporter	5–10%
Trading	International commodity trader	10–15%
Roasting	Roasting company (e.g., in Europe)	20–30%
Retailing	Supermarket or coffee shop	40–60%

This reveals stark inequalities: the farmer who grows the coffee receives a tiny fraction of the final retail price. Fair Trade certification attempts to address this by guaranteeing a minimum price to producers.

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Agribusiness

Agribusiness refers to the integration of agricultural production with processing, distribution, and retail into large-scale commercial enterprises.

Key Features

• Vertically integrated companies controlling multiple stages of the food chain
• Horizontal integration: mergers and acquisitions creating ever-larger firms
• Global reach: operating across multiple countries and continents
• Heavy investment in research, technology, and marketing
• Focus on efficiency, standardisation, and profitability

Major Agribusiness Corporations

Company	Headquarters	Activities
Cargill	USA	Grain trading, animal feed, food processing
ADM (Archer Daniels Midland)	USA	Oilseed processing, grain trading, biofuels
Bayer (formerly Monsanto)	Germany	Seeds, pesticides, biotechnology
Syngenta	Switzerland (ChemChina)	Seeds, crop protection chemicals
JBS	Brazil	World's largest meat processing company
Nestlé	Switzerland	Food and beverage processing

Evaluation of Agribusiness

Benefits:

• Increases food production efficiency and lowers costs
• Investment in research and development (new crop varieties, precision agriculture)
• Creates employment and economic activity
• Improves food safety standards through traceability
• Can reduce food waste through better logistics