Migration Theories and Patterns
This lesson examines the major theories of migration and the patterns of population movement at local, national, and international scales. Understanding migration theory is essential for AQA A-Level Geography, as it underpins analysis of demographic change, urbanisation, and globalisation.
Defining Migration
Migration is the permanent or semi-permanent movement of people from one place to another. It is distinct from temporary movements such as commuting or tourism.
Types of Migration
| Type | Definition | Examples |
|---|
| Internal migration | Movement within a country | Rural-urban migration in China |
| International migration | Movement between countries | Polish migration to the UK |
| Voluntary migration | Free choice to move | Economic migration for better jobs |
| Forced migration | Compelled to move | Refugee flight from conflict |
| Temporary migration | Move for a limited period | Seasonal agricultural workers |
| Permanent migration | Settle indefinitely in new location | Family reunification migration |
| Step migration | Moving in stages (village → town → city) | Rural migrants in India |
| Return migration | Moving back to place of origin | Polish workers returning after Brexit |
| Chain migration | Following established links (family, community) | Turkish communities in Germany |
Key Terms
- Emigration: leaving a country
- Immigration: entering a country
- Net migration: immigrants minus emigrants
- Asylum seeker: person who has applied for refugee status
- Refugee: person forced to leave their country due to persecution, conflict, or disaster (UNHCR definition based on the 1951 Geneva Convention)
- Internally Displaced Person (IDP): forced to move within their own country
Ravenstein's Laws of Migration (1885)
Ernst Georg Ravenstein, a German-English geographer, analysed census data from England and Wales to formulate his "laws" of migration. Despite being over 130 years old, many of his observations remain relevant.
The Laws
- Most migrants move only a short distance — long-distance migrants tend to move to major centres of commerce and industry
- Migration proceeds step by step — migrants often move in stages rather than directly to their final destination
- Long-distance migrants tend to move to large cities — urban areas act as magnets for migration
- Each migration stream produces a counter-stream — movement in one direction generates return movement
- Urban dwellers are less likely to migrate than rural dwellers — rural populations have a greater propensity to migrate
- Females are more migratory over short distances; males over longer distances — gender patterns differ by scale
- Most migrants are adults — families with children are less mobile
- Large towns grow more by migration than by natural increase — urban growth is migration-driven
- Migration increases with economic development — development stimulates both internal and international movement
- The major causes of migration are economic — employment opportunities are the primary driver
Evaluation
Strengths:
- Many observations remain valid (e.g., economic motivation, step migration)
- Pioneered the systematic study of migration patterns
- Identified the importance of distance and urban hierarchy
Limitations:
- Based on 19th-century England — may not apply to all contexts
- Did not fully account for forced migration
- Gender patterns have changed significantly since 1885
- Modern transport and communication have reduced the friction of distance
- Did not consider political factors, immigration policies, or globalisation
Lee's Push-Pull Model (1966)
Everett Lee developed a model that identifies factors influencing the decision to migrate, categorised as push factors, pull factors, intervening obstacles, and personal factors.
The Four Components
Push Factors (at origin):
- Unemployment or low wages
- Poverty and lack of economic opportunity
- Political instability, conflict, or persecution
- Environmental hazards (drought, flooding, desertification)
- Poor healthcare and education services
- Social discrimination
Pull Factors (at destination):
- Better employment opportunities and higher wages
- Political stability and freedom
- Better healthcare, education, and public services
- Family and community connections (chain migration)
- Perceived better quality of life
- Environmental amenity
Intervening Obstacles:
- Physical distance and transport costs
- Immigration laws and visa restrictions
- Language and cultural barriers
- Family ties at origin
- Lack of information about destination
- Physical barriers (oceans, mountains, deserts)
Personal Factors:
- Age — young adults are more mobile
- Education and skills — influence employability at destination
- Gender — cultural norms may restrict female migration in some societies
- Family status — single people migrate more easily than families
- Risk tolerance — willingness to take the chance of moving
- Personality and ambition
Evaluation
Strengths:
- Simple and intuitive framework
- Recognises that migration is not just about economic factors
- Acknowledges intervening obstacles and personal decision-making
- Widely applicable to different scales and contexts