The Napoleonic Wars and the Continental System

From 1803 to 1815, Napoleon fought almost continuously against shifting coalitions of European powers. His military genius produced a series of stunning victories that remade the map of Europe, but his inability to defeat Britain and his decision to invade Russia ultimately brought about his downfall. The Continental System — Napoleon's attempt to wage economic warfare against Britain — was central to the strategic logic of the wars and to their eventual failure.

Key Definition: The Continental System was Napoleon's strategy of economic warfare against Britain, implemented through the Berlin Decree (November 1806) and Milan Decree (December 1807), which prohibited European trade with Britain and its colonies.

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The Resumption of War (1803)

The Peace of Amiens (March 1802) lasted barely a year. Britain declared war in May 1803, primarily because:

• Napoleon refused to evacuate the Netherlands and Switzerland
• He annexed Piedmont and reorganised Italy
• British commercial interests felt threatened
• Neither side had genuinely intended a permanent peace

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Napoleon's Major Campaigns

The War of the Third Coalition (1805)

Battle	Date	Result
Trafalgar	21 October 1805	Nelson destroyed the French and Spanish fleets; ended any prospect of invading Britain; secured British naval supremacy
Ulm	October 1805	Napoleon encircled and captured an entire Austrian army (~30,000 prisoners)
Austerlitz	2 December 1805	Napoleon's greatest victory; defeated Austria and Russia; "the Battle of the Three Emperors"

Treaty of Pressburg (December 1805): Austria ceded Venetia and Tyrol; recognised Napoleon's reorganisation of Germany.

The War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807)

Battle	Date	Result
Jena-Auerstedt	14 October 1806	Destroyed the Prussian army in a single day
Eylau	February 1807	Bloody, indecisive battle against Russia in harsh winter conditions
Friedland	14 June 1807	Decisive defeat of Russia

Treaty of Tilsit (July 1807): Tsar Alexander I of Russia became Napoleon's ally; Prussia lost half its territory; the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was created from Prussian Poland.

The Peninsular War (1807–1814)

Napoleon's intervention in Spain and Portugal proved a catastrophic strategic error:

Phase	Detail
Invasion	French forces occupied Spain (1808); Napoleon installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king
Popular resistance	Spanish guerrilla warfare tied down 250,000–300,000 French troops
British intervention	Wellington's army in Portugal provided a base for sustained conventional warfare
Significance	Napoleon called Spain his "Spanish ulcer" — a permanent drain on resources

The War of the Fifth Coalition (1809)

Battle	Date	Result
Aspern-Essling	May 1809	Napoleon's first significant defeat in battle; Austrians inflicted heavy casualties
Wagram	5–6 July 1809	Napoleon won but at heavy cost (~34,000 French casualties)

Treaty of Schönbrunn (October 1809): Austria ceded more territory and agreed to join the Continental System.

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The Continental System

Strategic Logic