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The period from September 1792 to July 1794 saw France become a republic, execute its king, wage war against most of Europe, and descend into the most radical and violent phase of the revolution. The Terror — in which approximately 16,600 people were executed by guillotine and perhaps 40,000 died in total — remains the most debated aspect of the French Revolution.
Key Definition: The Terror (la Terreur) refers to the period from September 1793 to July 1794 during which the revolutionary government used systematic violence against perceived enemies of the republic. The phrase "terror is the order of the day" was adopted by the Convention on 5 September 1793.
As Prussian armies advanced towards Paris, panic gripped the city. Crowds broke into prisons and massacred approximately 1,100–1,400 prisoners — including priests, aristocrats, common criminals, and prostitutes — in five days of chaotic violence.
A-Level Analysis: The September Massacres revealed the terrifying potential of popular violence uncontrolled by authority. They horrified moderate opinion both in France and abroad and helped create the image of the revolution as inherently violent.
The National Convention was elected by universal male suffrage (though turnout was very low, perhaps 10–15%) and met on 20 September 1792. Its first act was to abolish the monarchy and declare France a republic (22 September 1792).
| Faction | Key Figures | Position |
|---|---|---|
| Girondins | Brissot, Vergniaud, Roland | Moderate republicans; favoured federalism; distrusted Parisian radicalism |
| Montagnards (the Mountain) | Robespierre, Danton, Marat, Saint-Just | Radical republicans; allied with the Parisian sans-culottes; centralising |
| The Plain (Marais) | ~400 uncommitted deputies | Voted with whichever faction seemed most compelling |
Louis was put on trial by the Convention in December 1792. The key debates:
| Issue | Girondin Position | Montagnard Position |
|---|---|---|
| Guilt | Acknowledged but wanted a popular referendum | Guilty by definition; no appeal to the people |
| Sentence | Imprisonment or exile | Death |
| Key speech | Vergniaud: cautioned against creating a martyr | Saint-Just: "One cannot reign innocently" |
Louis XVI was found guilty by 693 votes to 0. The death sentence was carried by 387 to 334 (a majority of just 53). He was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.
Historiographical Debate: David P. Jordan (The King's Trial, 1979) argued that the trial was a genuine judicial proceeding, not a predetermined show trial. Michael Walzer (Regicide and Revolution, 1974) analysed it as a profound philosophical confrontation between monarchical sovereignty and popular sovereignty.
By the spring of 1793, the Republic faced existential threats on every front:
| Threat | Detail |
|---|---|
| Foreign war | France at war with Austria, Prussia, Britain, Spain, the Dutch Republic, and most Italian states (First Coalition) |
| Vendée revolt | Massive counter-revolutionary rebellion in western France (March 1793), triggered by conscription and the religious schism |
| Federalist revolts | Lyon, Marseille, Toulon, Bordeaux, and other cities rebelled against Parisian centralisation |
| Economic crisis | Inflation, food shortages, the failing assignat currency |
| Treason | General Dumouriez defected to the Austrians (April 1793) |
Created on 6 April 1793, the Committee became the effective government of France from July 1793, dominated by Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couthon, and Carnot (who organised the military effort).
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