The Interregnum and Cromwell (1649–1660)

The Interregnum — the period between the execution of Charles I (1649) and the Restoration of Charles II (1660) — was England's only experiment with republican government. This lesson examines the Commonwealth, the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell, the radical religious and political movements of the period, and the reasons for the republic's failure — while engaging with the historiographical debates that have shaped understanding of this extraordinary decade.

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The Commonwealth (1649–1653)

The Rump Parliament

The Rump — the remnant of the Long Parliament after Pride's Purge — governed England from 1649 to 1653. It was a narrow oligarchy, lacking popular mandate and dependent on the army for its survival.

Achievement	Failure
Established a functioning republic	Lacked democratic legitimacy — represented only a fraction of the political nation
Passed important legislation (navigation acts, law reform)	Failed to deliver the religious and political reforms the army demanded
Maintained domestic order	Showed no inclination to hold new elections — clinging to power
Defeated Royalist threats in Ireland, Scotland, and at sea	The conquest of Ireland (1649–50) was accomplished with extreme brutality

Cromwell in Ireland (1649–1650)

Event	Detail
Drogheda (September 1649)	Approximately 3,500 killed — including the garrison and many civilians. Cromwell justified this as the laws of war (the garrison had refused to surrender after the walls were breached).
Wexford (October 1649)	Approximately 2,000 killed in a massacre that occurred during negotiations — Cromwell's forces attacked without orders.
Land settlement	The Cromwellian land settlement confiscated Catholic-owned land across Ireland, transforming the pattern of land ownership.

Historiographical Debate: Cromwell's actions in Ireland have been debated endlessly. Tom Reilly has controversially argued that the scale of killing at Drogheda has been exaggerated and that Cromwell acted within the accepted rules of war. Micheál Ó Siochrú has presented a more critical assessment, situating Cromwell's campaign within the broader context of English colonial violence in Ireland. John Morrill has argued that Cromwell's motivations were primarily religious (anti-Catholic providentialism) rather than ethnic or nationalist.

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Oliver Cromwell and the Protectorate (1653–1658)

The End of the Rump

In April 1653, Cromwell dissolved the Rump Parliament by force — marching into the Commons with soldiers and declaring: "You have sat too long for any good you have been doing lately... In the name of God, go!"

The Instrument of Government (1653)

The Instrument of Government — England's only written constitution — established Cromwell as Lord Protector:

Feature	Detail
Lord Protector	Executive authority vested in Cromwell, advised by a Council of State
Parliament	A single-chamber Parliament of 400 members, meeting for a minimum of five months every three years
Religious toleration	Liberty of worship for all Protestants (but not Catholics or Episcopalians)
The militia	Joint control between Protector and Parliament

Cromwell's Dilemma

Cromwell faced an insoluble paradox: he believed in parliamentary government but could not find a Parliament willing to cooperate with him.

Parliament	Date	Problem
Barebones Parliament	July–December 1653	A nominated assembly of "godly men" — it proved unworkable, with radical members proposing the abolition of tithes and reform of the legal system. Moderate members voted to dissolve it.
First Protectorate Parliament	1654–55	Challenged the Instrument of Government, particularly the army's role. Cromwell dissolved it at the earliest opportunity.
The Major-Generals	1655–57	Cromwell divided England into eleven districts, each governed by a major-general responsible for security and moral reform. Deeply unpopular — associated military government with Puritanical interference in daily life.
Second Protectorate Parliament	1657–58	Offered Cromwell the crown (the Humble Petition and Advice). Cromwell refused — the army would not accept a new king.

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Religious Radicalism

The Interregnum saw an extraordinary flowering of radical religious and political movements: