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The period from 1965 to 1975 saw the collapse of the post-war liberal consensus that had dominated American politics since the New Deal. The Vietnam War destroyed public trust in government, the counterculture challenged traditional values, and the Watergate scandal brought down a president. By 1975, Americans' faith in their institutions had been profoundly shaken — a transformation whose consequences continue to shape American politics.
Key Definition: The liberal consensus refers to the broad agreement (c.1945–1968) among both major parties that the federal government should maintain a welfare state, pursue Cold War containment abroad, and promote managed economic growth. This consensus was shattered by Vietnam, social upheaval, and the rise of the New Right.
American involvement in Vietnam was a gradual escalation spanning four presidencies:
| President | Period | Key Actions |
|---|---|---|
| Eisenhower | 1954–1961 | Supported South Vietnam with advisers and aid after French defeat at Dien Bien Phu; "domino theory" justified involvement |
| Kennedy | 1961–1963 | Increased advisers from 900 to 16,000; supported the overthrow of President Diem (November 1963) |
| Johnson | 1963–1969 | Massive escalation: from 23,000 troops (1964) to 536,000 (1968); Rolling Thunder bombing campaign |
| Nixon | 1969–1974 | Vietnamisation; secret bombing of Cambodia; Paris Peace Accords (1973); withdrawal |
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (August 1964) gave Johnson virtually unlimited authority to use military force in Southeast Asia. It was based on alleged attacks on US destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin — the first attack was real but the second almost certainly did not occur. The resolution passed with only two dissenting votes in the Senate.
The historian Fredrik Logevall, in Choosing War (1999), argued that Johnson's escalation was not inevitable but a deliberate choice. Logevall documented how Johnson had alternatives to escalation — including negotiation and withdrawal — but rejected them out of fear of appearing weak and losing the domestic political battle over "who lost Vietnam."
The Vietnam War was fundamentally different from previous American conflicts:
Key Definition: The credibility gap refers to the growing disparity between the Johnson administration's optimistic public statements about the progress of the war and the reality on the ground, which eroded public trust in government.
The Tet Offensive (30 January 1968) was a coordinated assault by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces on over 100 cities and military installations across South Vietnam, including the US Embassy in Saigon. Although the offensive was a military failure for the communists (they suffered enormous casualties and held no major objectives), it was a devastating psychological and political blow:
Opposition to the Vietnam War grew from small-scale protests to a mass movement that convulsed American society:
| Phase | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| 1965–1966 | Campus-based; teach-ins; early protests; opposition mainly from the New Left and students |
| 1967 | Mass mobilisation: 100,000 marched on the Pentagon (October 1967); opposition spread to clergy, professionals, and some politicians |
| 1968 | Tet Offensive galvanised opposition; violent clashes at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago; anti-war candidates (Eugene McCarthy, Robert Kennedy) challenged Johnson |
| 1969–1970 | Moratorium marches (15 October 1969: millions participated nationwide); Kent State massacre (4 May 1970: Ohio National Guard killed four students); Cambodia invasion sparked nationwide campus strikes |
| 1971–1973 | Pentagon Papers (leaked by Daniel Ellsberg) revealed government deception; Vietnam Veterans Against the War organised; public opinion firmly against the war |
The anti-war movement was never monolithic. It ranged from liberal politicians who favoured negotiation to radical students who saw the war as an expression of American imperialism. The movement's effectiveness has been debated: it certainly influenced public opinion, but its more radical elements may have alienated Middle America and strengthened support for Nixon.
Exam Tip: When evaluating the anti-war movement, consider both its impact on policy (it constrained Johnson's options and contributed to the decision not to seek re-election) and its limitations (Nixon won election in 1968 and re-election in 1972 despite the movement). The strongest answers will consider the movement's diverse elements and avoid treating it as uniform.
The mid-to-late 1960s saw the emergence of a counterculture that rejected mainstream American values:
The counterculture was primarily a phenomenon of white, middle-class youth and was often at odds with the working-class voters who formed the traditional Democratic base. Its cultural impact was enormous, but it also provoked a powerful conservative backlash.
Richard Nixon won the 1968 election by appealing to the "silent majority" — Americans who were tired of protests, riots, and social upheaval. His presidency combined significant diplomatic achievements with a systematic assault on democratic norms that culminated in the Watergate scandal.
Nixon's strategy for exiting Vietnam was "Vietnamisation" — gradually transferring combat responsibility to South Vietnamese forces while withdrawing American troops:
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