US Elections
Elections in the United States are a complex, expensive, and highly consequential process that determines the holders of over 500,000 elected offices at federal, state, and local levels. For Edexcel A-Level Politics, the focus is on presidential elections and the institutions that shape them: the Electoral College, primaries and caucuses, campaign finance, and the parties. Understanding how US elections work - and how they compare with UK elections - is essential for Paper 3.
The Electoral College
Structure
The President is not elected directly by the people but through the Electoral College, an indirect system established by Article II of the Constitution and modified by the Twelfth Amendment.
- Total electoral votes: 538
- To win: A candidate needs a majority - at least 270 electoral votes
- Each state receives electoral votes equal to its total congressional representation (House seats + 2 Senate seats)
- The District of Columbia receives 3 electoral votes (under the 23rd Amendment)
| State | Electoral Votes | Status |
|---|
| California | 54 | Safe Democrat |
| Texas | 40 | Lean Republican |
| Florida | 30 | Battleground |
| Pennsylvania | 19 | Battleground |
| Wyoming | 3 | Safe Republican |
Winner-Takes-All
In 48 states (plus DC), the candidate who wins the popular vote in that state receives all of its electoral votes. Only Maine and Nebraska use a proportional district system.
This winner-takes-all system has profound consequences:
- Campaigns focus overwhelmingly on "swing states" or "battleground states" where the outcome is uncertain
- Safe states (California for Democrats, Wyoming for Republicans) are largely ignored
- A candidate can win the presidency while losing the national popular vote - as happened in 2000 (Bush) and 2016 (Trump)
Arguments For the Electoral College
- Preserves the federal character of the US - states, not just individual voters, matter
- Forces candidates to build broad geographic coalitions rather than focusing on population centres
- Provides clear, decisive outcomes in most elections
- Protects the interests of smaller states
Arguments Against the Electoral College
- Undemocratic - the candidate with the most votes can lose (the "wrong winner" problem)
- Distorts campaign strategy - only swing states receive attention
- Disenfranchises voters in safe states whose votes effectively do not matter
- Over-represents small states (Wyoming has 1 electoral vote per 192,000 people; California has 1 per 719,000)
Reform Proposals
- Constitutional amendment to establish a national popular vote (extremely unlikely due to the supermajority requirement)
- National Popular Vote Interstate Compact (NPVIC) - an agreement among states to award their electoral votes to the winner of the national popular vote; would take effect once states totalling 270 electoral votes join (currently at 209)
- Proportional allocation - dividing electoral votes proportionally rather than winner-takes-all
The Nomination Process
Before the general election, each party must select its presidential candidate through a months-long process of primaries and caucuses.
Primaries
A primary is a state-level election in which voters choose their preferred candidate. Types include:
| Type | Who Can Vote | Examples |
|---|
| Closed primary | Only registered party members | New York, Florida |
| Open primary | Any registered voter regardless of party | Wisconsin, Virginia |
| Semi-closed | Registered members + unaffiliated voters | Connecticut, New Hampshire |
Caucuses
A caucus is a local meeting where party members gather, debate, and vote in person. Caucuses are:
- More time-consuming and less accessible than primaries
- Tend to attract the most politically engaged (and often more ideologically extreme) voters
- Have declined in number - Iowa's Democratic caucus was effectively replaced after 2020
The Nomination Timeline
- The "Invisible Primary" (year before election) - candidates raise money, seek endorsements, and build media profiles
- Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary - traditionally the first contests, giving early winners crucial momentum
- Super Tuesday - multiple states vote on the same day, often effectively deciding the nomination
- Remaining primaries and caucuses - continue through spring
- National convention - the party formally nominates its candidate and adopts a platform
Delegates
Primary and caucus results translate into delegates who attend the national convention:
- Democrats use proportional allocation (candidates winning at least 15% of the vote receive delegates)
- Republicans use a mix of winner-takes-all and proportional systems depending on the state
- Democrats also have superdelegates - party officials who can vote for any candidate (reformed after 2016 to only vote on a second ballot)