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The behaviourist approach dominated psychology from the 1910s to the 1950s and remains hugely influential today. It emerged as a direct reaction against Wundt's introspectionist methods, insisting that psychology should be the study of observable behaviour rather than unobservable mental processes.
Key Definition: Behaviourism — the approach that focuses exclusively on observable behaviour and explains all behaviour in terms of learning through interaction with the environment, primarily through classical and operant conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov (1849--1936), a Russian physiologist, discovered classical conditioning through his research on the digestive systems of dogs.
| Stage | Stimulus | Response |
|---|---|---|
| Before conditioning | Food (UCS) | Salivation (UCR) |
| Before conditioning | Bell (NS) | No salivation |
| During conditioning | Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) | Salivation (UCR) |
| After conditioning | Bell (CS) | Salivation (CR) |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus) | A stimulus that naturally produces a response without learning (e.g. food) |
| UCR (Unconditioned Response) | An unlearned, automatic response to the UCS (e.g. salivation to food) |
| NS (Neutral Stimulus) | A stimulus that does not produce the target response before conditioning (e.g. bell) |
| CS (Conditioned Stimulus) | The previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing with the UCS, triggers a response (e.g. bell) |
| CR (Conditioned Response) | The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g. salivation to bell) |
John B. Watson (1878--1958) is considered the founder of behaviourism. In his 1913 manifesto, he declared:
"Psychology as the behaviourist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science."
Watson and Rayner (1920) demonstrated that emotional responses can be classically conditioned in humans.
Exam Tip: The Little Albert study raises significant ethical concerns: Albert was not desensitised (the fear was never removed), informed consent was not obtained from his mother in any meaningful way, and the study caused distress to an infant. You should be able to discuss these ethical issues in detail.
B.F. Skinner (1904--1990) developed the theory of operant conditioning, which explains how behaviour is shaped by its consequences.
| Concept | Definition | Effect on Behaviour | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Positive reinforcement | Receiving a reward after a behaviour | Increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated | A student receives praise for answering a question correctly |
| Negative reinforcement | Removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour | Increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated | Taking a painkiller removes a headache, so you take painkillers again |
| Punishment | An unpleasant consequence following a behaviour | Decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated | A child is told off for hitting a sibling |
Key Definition: Reinforcement — any consequence of a behaviour that increases the probability of that behaviour being repeated. It can be positive (adding something pleasant) or negative (removing something unpleasant).
Skinner studied operant conditioning using a Skinner box — a controlled environment containing a lever and a food dispenser.
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