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This lesson provides a complete map of the AQA A-Level Psychology specification (7182), covering every topic across all three papers, option topic combinations, key studies, links between Issues and Debates and specific topics, high-frequency exam topics, a comprehensive revision checklist, and recommended study techniques for psychology.
The AQA A-Level Psychology specification is divided into compulsory topics (examined on Papers 1 and 2) and option topics (examined on Paper 3). Below is the complete topic map.
| Section | Topic | Key Content |
|---|---|---|
| 4.1.1 | Social Influence | Conformity: types (compliance, identification, internalisation) and explanations (informational social influence, normative social influence). Asch's line studies and variables affecting conformity. Conformity to social roles (Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment). Obedience: Milgram's study and situational variables. Explanations for obedience (agentic state, legitimacy of authority). Dispositional explanation of obedience (authoritarian personality — Adorno). Resistance to social influence (social support, locus of control). Minority influence (consistency, commitment, flexibility — Moscovici). Social change. |
| 4.1.2 | Memory | Coding, capacity, and duration of memory. Multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). Types of long-term memory: episodic, semantic, procedural. Working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). Explanations of forgetting: interference (proactive and retroactive), retrieval failure (cue-dependent forgetting). Factors affecting eyewitness testimony: misleading information (Loftus & Palmer, 1974), anxiety (weapon focus effect). Cognitive interview (Fisher & Geiselman, 1992). |
| 4.1.3 | Attachment | Caregiver-infant interaction: reciprocity and interactional synchrony. Schaffer's stages of attachment. Animal studies: Lorenz (imprinting), Harlow (contact comfort). Explanations of attachment: learning theory, Bowlby's monotropic theory. Ainsworth's Strange Situation and types of attachment (secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant). Cultural variations in attachment (Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988). Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis. Romanian orphan studies (Rutter et al., 2011). Influence of early attachment on later relationships (internal working model). |
| 4.1.4 | Psychopathology | Definitions of abnormality: statistical infrequency, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately, deviation from ideal mental health (Jahoda, 1958). Phobias: characteristics, explanations (two-process model — Mowrer), treatments (systematic desensitisation, flooding). Depression: characteristics, explanations (Beck's cognitive triad, Ellis's ABC model), treatments (CBT, SSRIs). OCD: characteristics, explanations (genetic and neural — COMT gene, serotonin), treatments (SSRIs, CBT including ERP). |
| Section | Topic | Key Content |
|---|---|---|
| 4.2.1 | Approaches in Psychology | Origins of psychology (Wundt, introspection). Behaviourist approach (classical conditioning — Pavlov; operant conditioning — Skinner). Social learning theory (Bandura — Bobo doll, mediational processes, vicarious reinforcement). Cognitive approach (schemas, cognitive neuroscience, computer analogy, Beck, Ellis). Biological approach (genes, genotype/phenotype, evolution, neurons, neurotransmitters, localisation). Psychodynamic approach (Freud — unconscious mind, id/ego/superego, psychosexual stages, defence mechanisms). Humanistic approach (Maslow — hierarchy of needs, Rogers — self-actualisation, conditions of worth, client-centred therapy). Comparison of approaches. |
| 4.2.2 | Biopsychology | Structure and function of the nervous system (central and peripheral). Structure and function of neurons (sensory, relay, motor). Synaptic transmission (neurotransmitters, excitation, inhibition). The endocrine system (glands and hormones). The fight-or-flight response (adrenaline, role of the amygdala). Localisation of function in the brain (motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory cortices; Broca's and Wernicke's areas). Lateralisation and split-brain research (Sperry, 1968). Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma. Ways of studying the brain (fMRI, EEG, ERP, post-mortem). Biological rhythms: circadian (sleep-wake cycle, SCN), infradian (menstrual cycle, SAD), ultradian (stages of sleep), endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers. |
| 4.2.3 | Research Methods | See the Research Methods & Mathematical Skills lesson for full coverage. Experimental methods, observational techniques, self-report, correlations, scientific processes, data handling, inferential testing, mathematical skills. |
| Section | Topic | Key Content |
|---|---|---|
| 4.3.1 | Issues and Debates (Compulsory) | Gender bias (alpha bias, beta bias, androcentrism). Cultural bias (ethnocentrism, cultural relativism). Free will and determinism (hard determinism, soft determinism, biological determinism, environmental determinism, psychic determinism). Nature-nurture debate (heredity, environment, interactionist approach, epigenetics). Holism and reductionism (biological reductionism, environmental reductionism). Idiographic and nomothetic approaches. Ethical implications of research and theory. |
Section B — Choose ONE:
| Topic | Key Content |
|---|---|
| Relationships | Evolutionary explanations of partner preferences (sexual selection, anisogamy). Factors affecting attraction: self-disclosure, physical attractiveness (matching hypothesis, halo effect, filter theory). Theories of romantic relationships: social exchange theory, equity theory, Rusbult's investment model, Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown. Virtual relationships (reduced cues theory, hyperpersonal model). Parasocial relationships (absorption-addiction model, attachment theory explanation). |
| Gender | Sex and gender (sex-role stereotypes, androgyny — Bem Sex Role Inventory). Cognitive explanations of gender development (Kohlberg's theory, gender schema theory). Psychodynamic explanation (Freud — Oedipus/Electra complex). Social learning theory explanation. Role of culture and media in gender. Atypical gender development (gender identity disorder). |
| Cognition and Development | Piaget's theory of cognitive development (stages, schemas, assimilation, accommodation, equilibration). Vygotsky's theory (zone of proximal development, scaffolding, social interaction). Baillargeon (object permanence research challenging Piaget). Theory of mind (Sally-Anne test). The mirror neuron system. |
Section C — Choose ONE:
| Topic | Key Content |
|---|---|
| Schizophrenia | Classification and diagnosis (positive and negative symptoms, reliability and validity of diagnosis). Biological explanations (genetics, dopamine hypothesis, neural correlates). Psychological explanations (family dysfunction, cognitive explanations). Biological therapies (typical and atypical antipsychotics). Psychological therapies (CBT, family therapy, token economies). Interactionist approach (diathesis-stress model). |
| Eating Behaviour | Explanations for food preferences (evolutionary explanations, role of learning). Neural and hormonal mechanisms (ghrelin, leptin, lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus). Biological and psychological explanations of anorexia nervosa (genetic, family systems theory, social learning, cognitive theory). Biological and psychological explanations of obesity (genetic, boundary model, restraint theory). |
| Stress | The physiology of stress (SAM pathway, HPA axis). The role of cortisol and adrenaline. Stress-related illness (immunosuppression — Kiecolt-Glaser). Sources of stress (life changes — Holmes & Rahe; daily hassles — Kanner; workplace stress). Measuring stress (SRRS, hassles and uplifts scale). Individual differences in stress (personality type A/B/C, hardiness — Kobasa). Managing stress (biological — drug therapy, biofeedback; psychological — stress inoculation therapy, hardiness training). |
Section D — Choose ONE:
| Topic | Key Content |
|---|---|
| Aggression | Neural and hormonal mechanisms (serotonin, testosterone). Genetic factors (MAOA gene — "warrior gene", twin studies). Ethological explanation (Lorenz — innate releasing mechanisms, fixed action patterns). Evolutionary explanation (infidelity, jealousy). Social psychological explanations (frustration-aggression hypothesis, social learning theory). Institutional aggression (importation model, deprivation model). Media influences on aggression (Bandura, desensitisation, disinhibition, cognitive priming). |
| Forensic Psychology | Offender profiling: top-down (FBI) approach vs bottom-up (investigative psychology — Canter) approach. Biological explanations of offending (Lombroso's atavistic form, genetic explanations, neural explanations). Psychological explanations of offending (Eysenck's theory of the criminal personality, cognitive distortions — hostile attribution bias, minimalisation). Differential association theory (Sutherland). Psychodynamic explanations. Dealing with offending: custodial sentencing, behaviour modification, anger management, restorative justice. |
| Addiction | Describing addiction (physical and psychological dependence, tolerance, withdrawal). Risk factors for addiction (genetic vulnerability, stress, personality, family influences, peers). Explanations of nicotine addiction (brain neurochemistry — dopamine, learning theory). Explanations of gambling addiction (learning theory — partial reinforcement, cognitive theory — cognitive biases). Reducing addiction (drug therapy — nicotine replacement, agonist substitution; behavioural interventions — aversion therapy, covert sensitisation; cognitive-behavioural therapy). The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen) and Prochaska's model of behaviour change. |
Most students study the following combination of option topics:
| Section | Most Popular Choice | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Section B | Relationships | Well-structured, interesting content; links clearly to Social Influence and Attachment from Paper 1 |
| Section C | Schizophrenia | Extensive research base; clear structure (biological vs psychological); links to Biopsychology and Psychopathology |
| Section D | Forensic Psychology | Engaging content; strong links to Approaches (biological, cognitive, psychodynamic, learning); good variety of evaluation points |
Other popular combinations include:
Exam Tip: Whichever option topics you study, make sure you can link them to Issues and Debates. Every option essay on Paper 3 can benefit from explicit reference to nature-nurture, determinism, reductionism, gender bias, cultural bias, or ethics.
For each topic, you should know at least 2-3 key studies with researcher names, dates, methodology, findings, and evaluation points. Below is a selection of the most important studies for each Paper 1 and Paper 2 topic.
| Study | Key Finding | Evaluation Point |
|---|---|---|
| Asch (1951) | 37% of trials showed conformity to an obviously wrong answer; conformity increased with group size (up to 3) and unanimity | Cultural and temporal validity questioned — may reflect 1950s American conformism; Perrin & Spencer (1980) found much lower conformity in UK engineering students |
| Milgram (1963) | 65% of participants obeyed to 450V in the baseline condition | Low ecological validity (artificial task); ethical issues (deception, distress); supported by Hofling et al. (1966) in a real-world setting |
| Zimbardo (1973) | Guards became increasingly aggressive; study stopped after 6 days | Demand characteristics (guards may have been role-playing); lack of informed consent; Reicher & Haslam (2006) BBC Prison Study found different results |
| Moscovici (1969) | Consistent minority influenced 8.42% of majority responses (blue-green slide study) | Lab study — low ecological validity; minority influence in real life is more complex and takes longer |
| Study | Key Finding | Evaluation Point |
|---|---|---|
| Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) | Proposed the multi-store model: sensory register → STM → LTM | Oversimplified — does not account for different types of LTM or different types of rehearsal |
| Baddeley & Hitch (1974) | Proposed the working memory model with multiple components | Supported by dual-task studies; the central executive remains poorly understood |
| Loftus & Palmer (1974) | The verb used in a question about a car accident affected speed estimates (e.g. "smashed" = 40.5 mph; "contacted" = 31.8 mph) | Lab study — low ecological validity; demand characteristics; but supported by real-world research on EWT |
| Fisher & Geiselman (1992) | The cognitive interview increased the amount of correct information recalled by eyewitnesses | Some techniques (e.g. report everything) may also increase the amount of incorrect information recalled |
| Study | Key Finding | Evaluation Point |
|---|---|---|
| Ainsworth (1970) | Identified three attachment types: secure (66%), insecure-avoidant (22%), insecure-resistant (12%) via the Strange Situation | Measures the attachment relationship, not the child's attachment type — different relationships may produce different types |
| Bowlby (1953) | Maternal deprivation in the first 2.5 years leads to irreversible emotional, intellectual, and social damage | Criticised for confusing deprivation and privation; gender bias (emphasis on the mother's role) |
| Rutter et al. (2011) | Romanian orphans adopted before 6 months showed near-normal development; those adopted after 6 months showed disinhibited attachment and cognitive delay | Supports a sensitive period rather than a critical period; individual differences in recovery |
| Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) | Meta-analysis of Strange Situation studies across cultures: secure attachment was the most common type in all cultures studied | Imposed etic — the Strange Situation was developed in the USA and may not be valid in other cultures |
| Study | Key Finding | Evaluation Point |
|---|---|---|
| Beck (1967) | Depression is maintained by the cognitive triad: negative views of the self, the world, and the future | Effective treatment (CBT) based on this model; but does not explain all symptoms (e.g. anger, hallucinations in severe depression) |
| Ellis (1962) | The ABC model: Activating events are interpreted through irrational Beliefs, leading to emotional Consequences | Effective treatment (REBT); but may be less effective for all types of depression |
| Mowrer (1960) | Two-process model of phobias: classical conditioning (acquisition) + operant conditioning (maintenance via avoidance) | Does not explain all phobias (many people cannot recall a traumatic event); biological preparedness (Seligman, 1971) suggests evolutionary factors |
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