Dealing with Offending: Behaviour Modification & Anger Management

Beyond custodial sentencing, forensic psychology offers several approaches to dealing with offending behaviour. These include behaviour modification (token economy programmes), anger management programmes, and restorative justice. Each approach is grounded in different psychological theory — operant conditioning, cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), and social psychology respectively — and each has distinct strengths and limitations.

Key Definition: Behaviour modification is the use of operant conditioning principles (reinforcement and punishment) to change behaviour. In forensic settings, it typically involves token economy programmes.

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Token Economy Programmes

Theoretical Basis

Token economy programmes are based on Skinner's operant conditioning — the principle that behaviour is shaped by its consequences. Behaviours followed by positive reinforcement are more likely to be repeated.

In a token economy:

1. Target behaviours are clearly defined (e.g., keeping a cell tidy, attending education classes, behaving respectfully towards staff)
2. When an offender demonstrates a target behaviour, they receive a token (a plastic disc, point, or star)
3. Tokens function as secondary (conditioned) reinforcers — they have no inherent value but can be exchanged for primary reinforcers (privileges such as extra recreation time, phone calls, commissary items)
4. Undesirable behaviours may result in tokens being removed (response cost)

graph LR
    A[Target Behaviour Performed] --> B[Token Awarded]
    B --> C[Tokens Accumulated]
    C --> D[Exchanged for Privileges]
    D --> E[Behaviour Reinforced]
    E --> A

Evidence — Hobbs and Holt (1976)

Hobbs and Holt (1976) implemented a token economy system in three cottages of a youth detention facility, with a fourth cottage serving as a control. After implementing the programme:

• Desired behaviours increased by 41% in the token economy cottages
• The control cottage showed no significant change
• The effects were maintained throughout the programme

This provides strong evidence that token economies can effectively modify behaviour within institutional settings.

Evaluation of Token Economies

Strengths	Limitations
Effective in controlled settings — Hobbs and Holt (1976) demonstrated significant increases in desired behaviour	Transfer of behaviour — Behaviour learned in prison may not transfer to the outside world, where tokens are not available. The behaviour may be situation-specific rather than genuinely internalised
Practical — Easy to implement, clearly defined target behaviours, measurable outcomes	Ethical concerns — Controlling prisoners through reward systems can be seen as manipulative. Basic rights (food, warmth, shelter) should not be contingent on behaviour
Based on well-established learning theory — Operant conditioning has extensive empirical support	Does not address underlying causes — Token economies change surface behaviour but do not address the cognitive, emotional, or social factors that contribute to offending
	Individual differences — Not all offenders respond equally. Those with antisocial personality disorder may be resistant to behavioural modification

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Anger Management Programmes

Theoretical Basis — Novaco (1975)

Anger management programmes are based on cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and specifically on Novaco's (1975) Stress Inoculation Training model. The key assumption is that anger is not directly caused by events but by the cognitive interpretation (appraisal) of those events. If offenders can learn to recognise and change their maladaptive thought patterns, they can control their anger and reduce violent behaviour.

The Three Stages of Anger Management

Stage 1: Cognitive Preparation

The offender works with a therapist to:

• Identify anger triggers — situations, people, or events that typically provoke anger
• Recognise physiological signs of anger (increased heart rate, muscle tension, clenched fists)
• Understand the role of cognition — how thoughts (e.g., "They're disrespecting me") escalate anger

Stage 2: Skill Acquisition

The offender learns new coping skills, including:

• Relaxation techniques — deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, mindfulness
• Cognitive restructuring — replacing hostile, irrational thoughts with calmer, more rational interpretations (e.g., replacing "They're doing this to wind me up" with "They probably didn't mean anything by it")
• Self-talk — using positive internal dialogue to manage emotional responses (e.g., "Stay calm. I can handle this without getting angry")
• Assertiveness training — expressing needs and boundaries without aggression

Stage 3: Application Practice