Social Explanations of Gender Development

While biological explanations emphasise chromosomes, hormones, and brain structure, social explanations argue that gender is primarily learned through interaction with the social environment. This lesson examines social learning theory (SLT) as applied to gender development, the role of the media, and cultural variations in gender roles.

Key Definition: Social learning theory (SLT) explains behaviour as being learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement of models in the social environment. Applied to gender, SLT proposes that children learn gender-typed behaviour by observing and imitating same-sex models and being reinforced for gender-appropriate behaviour.

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Social Learning Theory of Gender (Bandura, 1977)

Albert Bandura's (1977) social learning theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how children learn gender-typed behaviour. The theory identifies several key processes:

1. Observation and Modelling

Children observe the behaviour of models — parents, siblings, peers, teachers, and media figures — and learn what behaviours are associated with each gender.

• Children are more likely to imitate same-sex models because they identify with them.
• Modelling is most effective when the model is perceived as similar, powerful, nurturing, or rewarded for their behaviour.

2. Imitation

After observing gendered behaviour, children imitate it. For example:

• A girl observes her mother cooking and imitates this behaviour in play.
• A boy observes male footballers and imitates their behaviour in the playground.

3. Reinforcement (Direct and Vicarious)

Direct reinforcement occurs when the child is personally rewarded or punished for gender-typed behaviour:

• A boy who plays with trucks may be praised ("Good boy!"), while playing with dolls may be discouraged ("That's a girl's toy").
• A girl who is gentle and cooperative may be praised, while aggressive behaviour may be punished.

Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a child observes someone else being rewarded or punished for gendered behaviour and adjusts their own behaviour accordingly:

• A boy sees another boy being praised for playing football → he imitates.
• A girl sees another girl being teased for playing roughly → she avoids rough play.

4. Identification and Internalisation

Over time, children identify with same-sex models and internalise gender norms — gender-typed behaviour becomes part of their self-concept, not just a response to external reinforcement.

Key Definition: Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a person observes another person being rewarded or punished for a behaviour and adjusts their own behaviour accordingly, without experiencing the reinforcement directly.

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Key Research Studies

Smith and Lloyd (1978)

Smith and Lloyd investigated whether adults treat infants differently based on perceived gender.

Method:

• Adults were given babies to play with. Some babies were dressed in "boys'" clothes and given boys' names; others were dressed in "girls'" clothes and given girls' names. The babies' actual sex did not always match the clothing.

Findings:

• Adults selected gender-typed toys based on the baby's perceived sex (not actual sex).
• "Boys" were given hammers and encouraged in physical activity.
• "Girls" were given soft dolls and spoken to more gently.

Conclusion: Adults reinforce gender stereotypes from the earliest age, even with babies. This supports SLT's claim that differential reinforcement shapes gender-typed behaviour.

Fagot (1978)

Beverly Fagot observed parents interacting with their children (aged 20–24 months) in the home.

Findings:

• Boys were reinforced for playing with "masculine" toys (blocks, trucks) and criticised for playing with "feminine" toys or seeking help.
• Girls were reinforced for playing with dolls, dressing up, and asking for help, and were criticised for running, jumping, and climbing.
• Fathers were more likely than mothers to reinforce gender-typed behaviour — particularly for boys.

Conclusion: Parents actively shape gender-typed behaviour through differential reinforcement, consistent with SLT. The finding that fathers enforce gender norms more strictly, especially for sons, is a noteworthy gender difference.

Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961) — The Bobo Doll Study

Although not specifically about gender, the Bobo doll study demonstrated that children learn aggressive behaviour through observation and imitation:

• Children who observed an aggressive adult model were more likely to imitate the aggression.
• Children were more likely to imitate same-sex models.
• This provides foundational evidence for SLT's claim that children learn behaviour — including gender-typed behaviour — through observation and imitation.

Exam Tip: When using the Bobo doll study to support SLT of gender, focus on the finding that children were more likely to imitate same-sex models. This directly supports the idea that gender-typed behaviour is learned through identification with same-sex models.

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Media Influences on Gender

The media is a powerful source of gender models. Children are exposed to gender stereotypes through television, films, social media, advertising, and video games.

How Does the Media Influence Gender?