Virtual Relationships and Parasocial Relationships

Not all relationships are conducted face-to-face. The rise of internet-mediated communication has led to new forms of relationship, while the ubiquity of media has generated interest in parasocial relationships — one-sided attachments to media figures. This lesson examines how relationships form and develop online, and why people develop attachments to celebrities and fictional characters.

Key Definition: A virtual relationship (or computer-mediated communication, CMC) is a relationship that is primarily conducted through online channels — such as social media, dating apps, email, or forums — rather than face-to-face.

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Virtual Relationships

Self-Disclosure in Online Relationships

One of the most striking features of virtual relationships is that people often disclose more about themselves online than they would face-to-face. This phenomenon is known as the online disinhibition effect (Suler, 2004).

Reasons for increased self-disclosure online include:

• Anonymity — people feel less vulnerable when their identity is partially hidden.
• Reduced social cues — the absence of facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice reduces the fear of immediate judgement.
• Asynchronous communication — people have time to carefully construct their messages, rather than responding in real time.

Key Definition: The online disinhibition effect occurs when people communicate more openly and reveal more about themselves online than they would in face-to-face interactions, due to the perceived safety of anonymity and reduced social cues.

Absence of Gating

In face-to-face relationships, certain characteristics act as gates that can prevent a relationship from forming or progressing. These gates include physical appearance, age, ethnicity, disability, social anxiety, and speech impediments.

McKenna and Bargh (2000) argued that in online relationships, many of these gates are removed or reduced, allowing relationships to develop based on factors such as shared interests, personality, and values rather than surface-level characteristics.

Implications:

• People who are shy, socially anxious, or physically stigmatised may find it easier to form relationships online.
• Relationships formed online may be based on deeper, more genuine self-disclosure than face-to-face relationships.
• However, the absence of gating also raises the possibility of deception — people can misrepresent their appearance, age, or identity.

Reduced Cues Theory (Sproull & Kiesler, 1986)

Sproull and Kiesler proposed that CMC lacks the nonverbal cues present in face-to-face communication (facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice). Without these cues:

• Communication is more likely to be misunderstood.
• Relationships formed online may be less emotionally rich and more superficial.
• People may be more hostile and disinhibited (flaming, trolling) because the absence of social cues reduces accountability.

This theory predicts that online relationships are inferior to face-to-face relationships.

The Hyperpersonal Model (Walther, 1996)

Joseph Walther challenged the reduced cues approach with his hyperpersonal model, arguing that online relationships can actually become more intimate than face-to-face relationships.

Key mechanisms:

Process	Explanation
Selective self-presentation	Online communicators can carefully choose what to reveal, presenting an idealised version of themselves
Over-attribution	The receiver fills in the "gaps" left by reduced cues with positive attributions, idealising the partner
Reciprocal intensification	As both partners engage in selective self-presentation and idealisation, the cycle intensifies, creating a "hyperpersonal" connection
Asynchronous editing	Senders can take time to craft messages, making them more thoughtful and polished than spontaneous face-to-face speech

Walther argued that these processes can make online communication more intimate and personal than face-to-face interaction — hence "hyperpersonal."

Evaluation of Virtual Relationship Theories

Reduced Cues Theory — Evaluation:

• Support: Research does show that misunderstandings are more common in text-based communication, and cyberbullying suggests online disinhibition can be negative.
• Limitation: The theory is outdated — modern CMC includes video calls, voice messages, emojis, and GIFs, which reintroduce nonverbal cues. The theory was developed when CMC was primarily text-based.
• Limitation: It takes an overly negative view of online relationships, which contradicts the experience of millions of people who have formed meaningful relationships online.

Hyperpersonal Model — Evaluation:

• Support: Whitty and Joinson (2009) found evidence that people do engage in selective self-presentation online, and that online interactions can feel more intimate than face-to-face ones.
• Support: The model explains the success of online dating, where people carefully construct profiles to present themselves positively.
• Limitation: Selective self-presentation can lead to disappointment when online partners eventually meet face-to-face and the idealised image does not match reality.
• Limitation: The model may apply more to text-based CMC than to video-based communication, where selective self-presentation is harder.

Exam Tip: When discussing virtual relationships, always contrast reduced cues theory with the hyperpersonal model — they make opposing predictions about the quality of online relationships. This demonstrates AO3 comparison skills.

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Parasocial Relationships

What Is a Parasocial Relationship?

Key Definition: A parasocial relationship (PSR) is a one-sided relationship in which one person (the fan) extends emotional energy, interest, and time towards another person (typically a celebrity or media figure) who is entirely unaware of the fan's existence.

Horton and Wohl (1956) first described parasocial relationships, noting that television creates an "illusion of intimacy" between viewers and media personalities. The viewer feels they "know" the celebrity, even though the interaction is entirely one-directional.

Levels of Parasocial Relationships (Maltby et al., 2006)

Maltby et al. developed the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS) to measure the intensity of parasocial relationships and identified three levels: