Obedience: Milgram's Research

Obedience is a form of social influence in which an individual follows a direct order from a person perceived to be a legitimate authority figure. Unlike conformity, obedience involves a clear difference in social status between the person giving the order and the person obeying. Stanley Milgram's research on obedience remains one of the most significant — and most controversial — studies in the history of psychology.

Key Definition: Obedience is a form of social influence where an individual follows a direct order or instruction from an authority figure. The person who obeys is usually of lower status than the person who gives the order.

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Obedience vs. Conformity

It is important to distinguish obedience from conformity, as exam questions may require you to compare them:

Feature	Obedience	Conformity
Source of influence	An authority figure giving a direct order	The majority of a group exerting implicit pressure
Status difference	Yes — the authority figure has higher perceived status	No — influence comes from peers of equal status
Explicitness	Explicit — a direct instruction or command	Implicit — pressure to fit in is often unspoken
Behaviour change	The person does something they are told to do	The person changes their behaviour to match the group
Awareness	The person is usually aware they are being told what to do	The person may not be fully aware of the group's influence

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Historical Context

Milgram conducted his research in the early 1960s, partly motivated by events of the Second World War and the Holocaust. The trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961 raised the question of whether those who carried out atrocities were simply "following orders." Milgram wanted to test whether ordinary Americans could be induced to harm an innocent person simply because an authority figure told them to.

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Milgram's Baseline Study (1963)

Procedure

• 40 male participants aged 20–50 were recruited through newspaper advertisements and paid $4.50 for taking part.
• The study took place at Yale University (a prestigious institution, lending legitimacy to the authority).
• Each participant was told the study was investigating the effect of punishment on learning.
• Through a rigged draw, the participant was always assigned the role of "teacher" and a confederate (Mr Wallace) was always the "learner."
• The learner was strapped to a chair in another room and connected to an (apparent) electric shock generator.
• The teacher was told to administer a shock every time the learner gave a wrong answer, increasing the voltage by 15V each time, from 15V to 450V.
• The shock generator had labels ranging from "Slight Shock" to "XXX" (450V).
• The learner gave predetermined wrong answers and at specific voltages gave scripted responses: at 300V he pounded on the wall and then fell silent.
• If the teacher hesitated, the experimenter (wearing a grey lab coat) used a series of standardised prods: "Please continue," "The experiment requires that you continue," "It is absolutely essential that you continue," "You have no other choice, you must continue."

Findings

Measure	Result
Participants reaching 450V	65% (26 out of 40)
Participants reaching 300V	100%
Signs of distress	Sweating, trembling, stuttering, nervous laughter, three participants had full-blown seizures

Key Definition: The agentic state is a mental state where a person sees themselves as an agent carrying out the wishes of another person (the authority figure) and therefore feels no personal responsibility for their actions.

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Milgram's Variations

Milgram conducted over 20 variations to identify which situational factors influenced obedience levels.

Variation	Change	Obedience Rate (to 450V)	Explanation
Baseline	Original setup at Yale	65%	High legitimacy of authority
Proximity	Learner in same room as teacher	40%	Harder to ignore victim's distress
Touch-proximity	Teacher had to place learner's hand on shock plate	30%	Physical contact increased empathy
Telephoned instructions	Experimenter gave instructions by phone	20.5%	Reduced immediacy of authority
Run-down office	Study moved to a run-down office in Bridgeport	47.5%	Reduced legitimacy of the setting
Uniform	Experimenter replaced by an ordinary member of the public	20%	Reduced perceived legitimate authority
Two teachers disobey	Two confederate teachers refused to continue	10%	Social support for disobedience

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Explanations of Obedience

Agentic State Theory (Milgram, 1974)

Milgram proposed that people operate in one of two states:

1. Autonomous state — the individual sees themselves as personally responsible for their actions and acts according to their own conscience.
2. Agentic state — the individual sees themselves as an agent of the authority figure and shifts responsibility for their actions onto the authority. This is the agentic shift.

The agentic state explains why participants in Milgram's study continued to shock the learner: they felt it was the experimenter's responsibility, not theirs.

Evaluation: The agentic state theory does not explain why some participants (35%) disobeyed. If simply following orders, all should have continued. Additionally, participants showed extreme distress, suggesting they felt some personal responsibility even in the agentic state.

Legitimacy of Authority