Religion in the 21st Century
The 21st century presents unique challenges and opportunities for religion. Globalisation, the rise of fundamentalism, the emergence of post-secularism, the growth of "spiritual but not religious" identities, and questions about religious literacy all shape the contemporary religious landscape. The AQA specification requires you to understand these developments, evaluate their significance, and consider the future of religion in Britain and globally.
Key Definition: Globalisation — the process by which the world becomes increasingly interconnected through trade, technology, migration, and cultural exchange, leading to the rapid spread of ideas, practices, and institutions across national boundaries.
Globalisation and Religion
Globalisation has had a profound and ambiguous impact on religion. On the one hand, it facilitates the spread of religious ideas, movements, and communities across borders. On the other hand, it exposes traditional religious communities to competing worldviews, consumer culture, and secularising forces.
Globalisation as a Force for Religion
- Pentecostalism is one of the fastest-growing religious movements in the world, spreading from the USA to Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, and East Asia through missionary activity, migration, and media. It is estimated that there are now over 600 million Pentecostals and Charismatics worldwide.
- Islam has a global reach through the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), international Islamic organisations (e.g., the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), and the global Muslim diaspora.
- Hinduism and Buddhism have spread to the West through migration, cultural exchange, and the appeal of meditation and yoga.
- The internet allows religious communities to connect across continents, share resources, and build transnational networks.
Globalisation as a Challenge to Religion
- Exposure to consumer culture and secular lifestyles may undermine traditional religious authority and practice.
- The global spread of liberal, secular values (individual autonomy, gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights) can conflict with conservative religious teaching.
- Peter Berger (see Lesson 2) argued that pluralism — the coexistence of multiple religious and secular worldviews — relativises all beliefs, making it harder for any single religion to maintain a monopoly on truth.
| Effect of Globalisation | Positive for Religion | Negative for Religion |
|---|
| Spread of ideas | New converts, global communities | Exposure to competing worldviews |
| Migration | Diaspora communities maintain and spread faith | Cultural assimilation may weaken faith |
| Technology/Internet | Online worship, digital outreach | Secularising content; echo chambers |
| Consumer culture | Religious products and markets | Materialism undermines spiritual values |
Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is a term originally applied to a movement within American Protestantism in the early 20th century, which insisted on the literal truth of the Bible and rejected liberal theology and Darwinism. The term is now used more broadly to describe movements within various religions that emphasise a return to foundational texts and practices, reject modernity and liberalism, and assert the absolute authority of their tradition.
Key Definition: Fundamentalism — a form of religious belief characterised by strict adherence to foundational texts and doctrines, rejection of liberal and modernist interpretations, and often a desire to impose religious values on public life.
Key Examples
- Christian fundamentalism: The American Religious Right, associated with figures such as Jerry Falwell (1933-2007) and the Moral Majority (founded 1979), sought to reverse perceived moral decline by campaigning on issues such as abortion, school prayer, and opposition to LGBTQ+ rights.
- Islamic fundamentalism: Movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood (founded 1928 by Hassan al-Banna), Wahhabism (dominant in Saudi Arabia), and groups such as ISIS/Daesh represent different manifestations of Islamic fundamentalism, ranging from political activism to violent extremism.
- Hindu nationalism: The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the political party BJP in India promote Hindutva — the idea of India as a fundamentally Hindu nation.
- Ultra-Orthodox Judaism: Movements such as the Haredim maintain strict adherence to traditional Jewish law and resist modernising influences.
Explaining Fundamentalism
Scholars have offered various explanations for the rise of fundamentalism:
- Karen Armstrong (b. 1944), in The Battle for God (2000), argues that fundamentalism is a defensive reaction against modernity. When people feel that their identity, values, and way of life are threatened by rapid social change, they may retreat to a rigid, idealised version of their tradition.
- Martin Marty and R. Scott Appleby directed the Fundamentalism Project (1988-1995) at the University of Chicago, producing a comprehensive comparative study. They identified common features across religious fundamentalisms, including: reaction against the marginalisation of religion; selective retrieval of doctrines; moral dualism (us vs. them); and an absolutist, non-negotiable worldview.
- Steve Bruce argues that fundamentalism is most likely to arise where modernisation threatens a community's cultural and religious identity — it is a product of social, not purely theological, forces.
Evaluation:
- Fundamentalism demonstrates the continuing vitality and political power of religion in the modern world, challenging the secularisation thesis.
- However, the term "fundamentalism" is contested. Many scholars argue that it is a Western, Protestant-derived label that distorts the movements it claims to describe. Applying it to Islam, Hinduism, or Judaism may obscure the distinctive features and contexts of these traditions.
- Not all fundamentalisms are violent. Many are primarily concerned with personal piety and communal identity, not with imposing their views on others.
Post-Secularism: Habermas
Jurgen Habermas (b. 1929), one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th and 21st centuries, has argued that we live in a "post-secular" society. This does not mean that secularisation has been reversed, but that the confident expectation that religion would simply disappear has been proved wrong.
In his address on receiving the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade (2001) — delivered just weeks after the 9/11 attacks — Habermas argued that: