Subcultural Theories of Crime

Subcultural theories build on Merton's strain theory by asking a question Merton left unanswered: why do people who experience blocked opportunities respond in the particular ways that they do? Rather than simply choosing between conformity, innovation, retreatism, ritualism, or rebellion as isolated individuals, many people respond to structural strain by forming or joining deviant subcultures — groups with their own distinctive norms and values that differ from those of mainstream society.

Key Definition: A subculture is a group within wider society whose members share norms and values that are distinct from — and often opposed to — those of mainstream culture.

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Albert Cohen: Status Frustration

Albert Cohen (1955) argued that Merton's theory was too individualistic and failed to explain non-utilitarian crime — crime that has no obvious material motive, such as vandalism and violence.

The Theory

Cohen agreed with Merton that working-class boys face blocked opportunities for achieving mainstream success goals, particularly in the education system. However, Cohen argued that the response is not simply individual innovation but the collective formation of delinquent subcultures.

Working-class boys enter the school system at a disadvantage. Schools are middle-class institutions that judge pupils against middle-class measuring rods — standards such as deferred gratification, ambition, and politeness. Working-class boys are unable to meet these standards and experience status frustration: the sense of failure and humiliation that comes from being judged against criteria they cannot achieve.

In response, they form delinquent subcultures that invert mainstream values. If mainstream society values property, the subculture values destruction (vandalism). If mainstream society values politeness, the subculture values aggression. Crime in this context is an act of reaction formation — a deliberate rejection of the values that have caused their frustration.

Key Definition: Status frustration is the sense of failure experienced by working-class youth when they are unable to achieve status through the legitimate means valued by mainstream (middle-class) institutions.

Key Features of Cohen's Delinquent Subculture

• Non-utilitarian — Much of the crime serves no obvious material purpose. Vandalism, fighting, and truancy are expressions of frustration rather than attempts to acquire wealth.
• Malicious — There is an element of deliberate hostility toward mainstream society and its values.
• Negativistic — The subculture takes the norms of mainstream society and inverts them. The delinquent subculture derives satisfaction from behaviour that shocks or upsets respectable society.

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Cloward and Ohlin: Three Types of Subculture

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) agreed with Merton that working-class youth are denied legitimate opportunities, but they argued that Merton had ignored the fact that access to illegitimate opportunity structures is also unequally distributed. Not everyone who wants to turn to crime can do so — the availability of criminal networks, role models, and criminal skills varies by neighbourhood.

Cloward and Ohlin identified three types of deviant subculture, depending on the local illegitimate opportunity structure:

Subculture	Description	Conditions
Criminal subculture	An established, organised criminal network exists in the neighbourhood, providing apprenticeships in crime for young people. Utilitarian crime (theft, drug dealing) is the norm. Professional criminals act as role models.	Areas with a stable, longstanding criminal community and links between adult criminals and youth.
Conflict subculture	No established criminal network exists, so young people cannot access an organised criminal career. Instead, frustration is expressed through violence, territorial gang warfare, and intimidation.	Disorganised, high-turnover neighbourhoods with no stable adult criminal hierarchy.
Retreatist subculture	Individuals who fail to gain access to both legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures "double fail." They retreat into drug use and alcoholism.	Those who are rejected by both mainstream society and criminal/conflict subcultures.

Application

Cloward and Ohlin's theory helps explain why different neighbourhoods produce different types of crime. In areas with established criminal networks (e.g., parts of East London with historical connections to organised crime), younger people may be inducted into professional criminal activity. In disorganised areas with high residential turnover, gang violence may predominate. Those who fail in both settings may become part of a retreatist subculture centred on substance abuse.

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Walter Miller: Focal Concerns