Gender Identity

Gender is one of the most fundamental dimensions of identity, shaping how individuals understand themselves, interact with others, and are treated by society. Sociologists distinguish between sex (biological) and gender (social), and examine how gender identities are constructed, maintained, and challenged through socialisation, culture, and power relations. This lesson examines key theories and debates relevant to the AQA specification.

Key Definition: Gender identity refers to an individual's subjective sense of their own gender — whether they identify as male, female, non-binary, or another gender identity — and how this sense of self is shaped by social, cultural, and biological factors.

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Sex vs Gender

The Distinction

Concept	Definition	Nature
Sex	Biological differences between males and females (chromosomes, hormones, reproductive anatomy)	Biological, generally fixed
Gender	The social and cultural expectations, roles, and behaviours associated with being male or female in a particular society	Social, culturally variable

This distinction is fundamental to the sociological study of gender. It allows sociologists to argue that what we think of as "masculine" or "feminine" behaviour is not biologically determined but socially constructed — learned through socialisation and varying across cultures and historical periods.

Evidence for Social Construction

• Margaret Mead (1935), in Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies, studied three New Guinea societies and found dramatic variation in gender roles:
  • Among the Arapesh, both men and women were gentle, nurturing, and cooperative (traits Western societies associate with femininity).
  • Among the Mundugumor, both men and women were aggressive, competitive, and emotionally restrained (traits associated with masculinity).
  • Among the Tchambuli, gender roles were reversed compared to Western norms — women were dominant and practical, men were emotional and decorative.

Evaluation (AO3):

• Mead's research powerfully demonstrates cultural variation in gender roles, supporting the social constructionist position.
• However, Mead has been criticised for overstating the differences and for potential observer bias. Freeman (1983) challenged some of Mead's earlier findings on Samoa.
• The sex/gender distinction has itself been challenged by some theorists (notably Butler, discussed below) who argue that even "biological sex" is partly a social construct — the categories into which bodies are classified are shaped by cultural assumptions.

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Hegemonic Masculinity — Connell (1995)

The Theory

R.W. Connell (1995), in Masculinities, introduced the concept of hegemonic masculinity — the dominant form of masculinity in any given society, which is culturally exalted above other forms of masculinity and above all forms of femininity.

Key Features

Hegemonic masculinity is characterised by:

• Physical strength and toughness.
• Emotional restraint — suppression of vulnerability and tenderness.
• Heterosexuality — homophobia as a defining boundary.
• Dominance and authority — in the workplace, the family, and social settings.
• Risk-taking and aggression.
• Breadwinner status — economic provision for the family.

Multiple Masculinities

Connell argued that hegemonic masculinity is not the only form of masculinity — it exists alongside:

Type	Description
Complicit masculinity	Men who do not fully embody hegemonic ideals but benefit from the "patriarchal dividend" — the advantages that accrue to men in a gender-unequal society
Subordinate masculinity	Masculinities that are actively oppressed by the hegemonic form — most notably gay masculinity
Marginalised masculinity	Masculinities shaped by class and ethnic marginalisation — e.g., Black masculinity, which may be both celebrated (in sport, music) and demonised (in relation to crime)

Key Sociologist: Connell (1995) argued that hegemonic masculinity — the dominant cultural ideal of manhood — is not natural or inevitable but is socially constructed and maintained through cultural practice, and that multiple, competing masculinities exist.

Evaluation (AO3):

• Connell's concept has been enormously influential and provides a sophisticated framework for understanding gender inequality.
• However, the concept of hegemonic masculinity has been criticised for being vague — it is not always clear what specific traits constitute the hegemonic ideal, and this may vary across cultures and historical periods.
• Some critics argue that the concept focuses too much on negative aspects of masculinity, neglecting positive male identities.
• Demetriou (2001) argued that Connell's model implies a too-clear hierarchy of masculinities, when in reality different forms interact and hybridise.

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Femininity — McRobbie and the Construction of Girls' Identity

McRobbie — Bedroom Culture

Angela McRobbie (1978, with Garber) argued that studies of youth subcultures (by the CCCS) had focused almost exclusively on boys, rendering girls invisible. McRobbie studied teenage girls' culture and identified "bedroom culture" — a distinct form of cultural participation in which girls socialised in private, domestic spaces (bedrooms), engaging with pop music, magazines, fashion, and romance.

McRobbie and Garber argued that girls' exclusion from public subcultural spaces (streets, clubs, sports grounds) was a product of patriarchal control — parents, schools, and wider society restricted girls' freedom of movement and public participation.

McRobbie — Post-Feminism and Femininity

In later work, McRobbie (2009) analysed how contemporary femininity is constructed through media and consumer culture. She argued that post-feminist culture involves a "double entanglement":