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Social class remains the single strongest predictor of educational achievement in the UK. Pupils from middle-class backgrounds consistently outperform those from working-class backgrounds at every stage of education, from early years through to university. The AQA specification requires you to understand and evaluate the external factors (those outside school) that contribute to class differences in achievement. These are grouped into two broad categories: material deprivation and cultural deprivation. You must also understand cultural capital theory and the role of compensatory education policies.
Key Definition: External factors are factors outside the education system, such as home background, income, and cultural values, that influence educational achievement.
Key Definition: Material deprivation refers to poverty and a lack of material resources such as adequate housing, income, and diet. Working-class families are more likely to experience material deprivation, which can have a direct impact on educational achievement.
Material deprivation is the most straightforward explanation for class differences in achievement. If a family lacks money, the child is likely to suffer educational disadvantage in several ways.
Howard (2001) identified overcrowded housing as a significant barrier to achievement. Children in overcrowded homes may lack a quiet space to do homework, suffer from disturbed sleep, and experience higher levels of stress and illness. Temporary accommodation and frequent house moves can mean disrupted schooling, loss of friendships, and missed learning.
Cold and damp housing is linked to higher rates of illness, which leads to more school absences. The charity Shelter has documented the impact of poor housing on children's education, finding that children in temporary accommodation are two to three times more likely to be absent from school than their peers.
Howard (2001) also highlighted the impact of poor diet on educational performance. Children from low-income families are less likely to have a nutritious diet, which can affect concentration, energy levels, and cognitive development. Wilkinson (1996) noted that children from poorer homes are more likely to suffer from illness and to have lower birth weights, both of which are associated with lower educational achievement.
Flaherty (2004) found that children from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to suffer from emotional and behavioural difficulties, to have lower attendance rates, and to be excluded from school — all of which directly affect achievement.
Although state education is nominally free, the hidden costs of schooling are significant. Families must pay for uniforms, school trips, stationery, textbooks, and increasingly for digital devices and internet access. Smith and Noble (1995) described these as the "costs of free schooling." Working-class families may struggle to afford these, placing their children at a disadvantage.
Bull (1980) used the term "the myth of free education" to describe the financial barriers that persist within the supposedly free state system. Ridge (2002) found that children from low-income families were aware of and embarrassed by their lack of material resources, which could affect their self-esteem and motivation.
At the post-16 and university level, the costs of education are even more significant. Although the Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) was introduced by New Labour to encourage working-class pupils to stay in education, it was abolished in England in 2011. University tuition fees (up to £9,250 per year in England) may deter working-class students from applying. Callender and Jackson (2005) found that working-class students were more debt averse — more worried about taking on student debt — and therefore less likely to apply to university.
| Factor | Impact on Achievement | Key Study |
|---|---|---|
| Poor housing | Overcrowding, no space for homework, illness, school moves | Howard (2001) |
| Poor diet | Reduced concentration, illness, lower cognitive development | Wilkinson (1996) |
| Low income | Cannot afford resources, trips, uniform; debt aversion at university | Bull (1980), Callender & Jackson (2005) |
| Ill health | More school absence, lower energy and concentration | Flaherty (2004) |
Strengths:
Limitations:
Key Definition: Cultural deprivation theory argues that some working-class families fail to transmit the attitudes, values, language, and knowledge that are needed for educational success. Their children arrive at school at a disadvantage compared to middle-class pupils.
Cultural deprivation theory has been highly influential but also highly controversial. It locates the cause of working-class underachievement in the home rather than in the school, which critics argue amounts to blaming the victim.
Sugarman (1970) argued that working-class subculture has four key features that act as barriers to educational achievement:
Sugarman argued that these values are a rational response to the experience of working-class manual labour, where jobs are often insecure, repetitive, and offer little chance of promotion. However, when transmitted to children, they create a disadvantage in the education system, which rewards the opposite values: ambition, individualism, deferred gratification, and future planning.
Basil Bernstein (1971) identified two types of speech code that relate to social class and educational achievement:
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