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This lesson covers the two fundamental types of cell — eukaryotic and prokaryotic — as required by the Edexcel GCSE Biology specification (1BI0), Topic 1: Key Concepts in Biology. You need to be able to describe the structures found in both cell types and explain their functions. Understanding the differences between these cell types is essential for the exam.
All living organisms are made up of cells. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Some organisms consist of only one cell (unicellular, e.g. bacteria and some protists), while others are made of many cells (multicellular, e.g. animals and plants).
There are two main categories of cell:
Exam Tip: The Edexcel specification expects you to know the key differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. A comparison question is very common on Paper 1.
Eukaryotic cells are found in animals, plants, fungi and protists. The word "eukaryotic" means "true nucleus" — these cells contain a nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane (nuclear envelope). They also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and, in plant cells, chloroplasts.
Eukaryotic cells are typically 10–100 μm in diameter (animal cells are usually around 10–30 μm).
Key:
| # | Organelle | Colour cue |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Cell membrane (outer boundary) | Orange outline |
| 2 | Cytoplasm (jelly-like interior) | Cream |
| 3 | Nucleus — contains DNA | Yellow with brown nucleolus |
| 4 | Mitochondrion — site of aerobic respiration | Pink ovals |
| 5 | Ribosomes — site of protein synthesis | Small dots |
An animal cell contains the following sub-cellular structures (organelles):
| Organelle | Structure | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Nucleus | Large, spherical, surrounded by a nuclear membrane | Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) arranged into chromosomes. Controls cell activities and cell division. |
| Cell membrane | Thin, flexible phospholipid bilayer | Controls what enters and leaves the cell. It is partially permeable (selectively permeable). |
| Cytoplasm | Jelly-like substance filling the cell | Where most chemical reactions take place. Contains enzymes that catalyse metabolic reactions. |
| Mitochondria | Small, oval-shaped with a folded inner membrane (cristae) | The site of aerobic respiration, where energy is transferred from glucose. Produces ATP. |
| Ribosomes | Very small structures (about 20–25 nm), found free in the cytoplasm or on rough endoplasmic reticulum | The site of protein synthesis — amino acids are assembled into proteins here. |
Exam Tip: Never say mitochondria "produce energy". Energy cannot be created or destroyed. The correct phrasing is: mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration, where energy is transferred (or released) from glucose.
Plant cells are also eukaryotic. They contain all of the organelles found in animal cells, plus three additional structures:
Key:
| # | Organelle | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Nucleus | Contains DNA; shared with animal cells. Often pushed against the cell wall by the large vacuole. |
| 2 | Cell wall (cellulose) | Plant-only. Rigid, freely permeable, stops the cell bursting when it takes in water. |
| 3 | Chloroplast | Plant-only. Site of photosynthesis; contains the green pigment chlorophyll. |
| 4 | Mitochondrion | Shared. Site of aerobic respiration — plant cells respire too. |
| 5 | Permanent vacuole | Plant-only. Large, central, full of cell sap; maintains turgor pressure. |
The cell membrane (inner brown line) and ribosomes (small dots) are also present, as in animal cells, but are not numbered to keep the diagram clean.
| Organelle | Structure | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Cell wall | Rigid outer layer made of cellulose | Provides structural support and protection. Prevents the cell from bursting when it takes in water by osmosis. It is freely permeable (allows all molecules through). |
| Permanent vacuole | Large, central, fluid-filled sac | Contains cell sap (a dilute solution of sugars, mineral salts and sometimes pigments). Maintains turgor pressure, keeping the cell firm. |
| Chloroplasts | Green, disc-shaped organelles containing membranes (thylakoids) | Contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide and water are converted into glucose and oxygen. |
| Feature | Animal Cell | Plant Cell |
|---|---|---|
| Nucleus | ✓ | ✓ |
| Cell membrane | ✓ | ✓ |
| Cytoplasm | ✓ | ✓ |
| Mitochondria | ✓ | ✓ |
| Ribosomes (80S) | ✓ | ✓ |
| Cell wall (cellulose) | ✗ | ✓ |
| Permanent vacuole | ✗ (may have small temporary vacuoles) | ✓ (large, central) |
| Chloroplasts | ✗ | ✓ (in green parts only) |
Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria (and archaea). The word "prokaryotic" means "before nucleus" — these cells do not have a true nucleus. Their genetic material is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane.
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, typically 1–5 μm in diameter — roughly one-tenth the size of a typical animal cell.
| Structure | Description | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Cell membrane | Phospholipid bilayer | Controls what enters and leaves the cell. |
| Cell wall | Made of peptidoglycan (not cellulose) | Provides structural support and protection. |
| Cytoplasm | Jelly-like substance | Where chemical reactions occur. |
| Ribosomes | Smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes (70S vs 80S) | Site of protein synthesis. |
| Chromosomal DNA | A single, circular loop of free DNA (not enclosed in a nucleus) | Carries the main genetic information for the cell. |
| Plasmids | Small, extra circles of DNA | Carry additional genes (e.g. antibiotic resistance genes). Can be transferred between bacteria. |
| Flagellum (plural: flagella) | A long, whip-like tail | Used for movement — rotates to propel the bacterium. Not all bacteria have flagella. |
| Capsule / slime layer | A sticky outer coating (in some bacteria) | Provides extra protection and helps the bacterium attach to surfaces. |
Exam Tip: Do not say prokaryotic cells have "no DNA". They do have DNA — it is just not enclosed within a nucleus. Say they have "no true nucleus" or "DNA is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane".
| Feature | Eukaryotic Cell | Prokaryotic Cell |
|---|---|---|
| Size | Larger (10–100 μm) | Smaller (1–5 μm) |
| Nucleus | True nucleus with nuclear membrane | No true nucleus — free DNA in cytoplasm |
| DNA | Linear chromosomes inside the nucleus | Single circular DNA loop + plasmids |
| Membrane-bound organelles | Present (mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc.) | Absent |
| Ribosomes | Larger (80S) | Smaller (70S) |
| Cell wall | Present in plants (cellulose); absent in animals | Present (peptidoglycan) |
| Flagella | Some cells (e.g. sperm) | Some bacteria |
| Plasmids | Not normally present | Present |
| Examples | Animal cells, plant cells, fungi | Bacteria |
Understanding the relative sizes of cells is important:
| Object | Approximate Size |
|---|---|
| Eukaryotic cell (animal) | 10–30 μm |
| Eukaryotic cell (plant) | 10–100 μm |
| Prokaryotic cell (bacterium) | 1–5 μm |
| Virus (for comparison — not a cell) | 20–300 nm |
| Ribosome (eukaryotic) | ~25 nm |
| Ribosome (prokaryotic) | ~20 nm |
You need to be confident converting between units of length:
To convert the other way (smaller to larger), divide by 1000.
Worked Example:
A bacterial cell is 2.5 μm long. What is this in nanometres?
2.5 μm × 1000 = 2500 nm
What is 2.5 μm in millimetres?
2.5 μm ÷ 1000 = 0.0025 mm
Exam Tip: Unit conversions are tested frequently. Remember: mm → μm → nm, each step is ×1000. Going the other way (nm → μm → mm) is ÷1000. Write the conversion chain and work through it step by step.
Question: A student observes an animal cell that is 20 μm in diameter and a bacterium that is 2 μm in length. Calculate how many times larger the animal cell is compared to the bacterium.
Answer:
Size ratio = size of animal cell ÷ size of bacterium
Size ratio = 20 μm ÷ 2 μm = 10 times larger
Exam Tip: When comparing sizes, make sure both measurements are in the same units before dividing. Always show your working clearly.
The table below pulls together every feature you may be asked to compare in the exam. Memorise the pattern of ticks: prokaryotes never have membrane-bound organelles and never have a true nucleus.
| Feature | Animal (eukaryote) | Plant (eukaryote) | Bacterium (prokaryote) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nucleus | Yes | Yes | No — single circular DNA in cytoplasm |
| Mitochondria | Yes | Yes | No |
| Chloroplasts | No | Yes | No |
| Cell wall | No | Yes (cellulose) | Yes (peptidoglycan) |
| Permanent vacuole | No (small temporary ones only) | Yes (large, central) | No |
| Ribosomes | Yes (80S, large) | Yes (80S, large) | Yes (70S, small) |
| Plasmids | No | No | Yes |
| Flagella | Sometimes (e.g. sperm) | No | Often |
| Typical diameter | 10–30 μm | 10–100 μm | 1–5 μm |
Common Mistake Callout: Candidates often write that "bacteria have no DNA". This is wrong — bacteria do have DNA, but it is not enclosed in a nucleus. It exists as one long circular chromosome free in the cytoplasm, often alongside smaller circular plasmids that carry extra genes (e.g. antibiotic resistance).
A student views a bacterium under an electron microscope. On the photograph it measures 30 mm in length. The scale bar next to the photograph is 10 mm long and represents 2 μm.
Step 1 — Find the magnification of the image:
Magnification = image size ÷ real size = 10 mm ÷ 2 μm = 10,000 μm ÷ 2 μm = ×5000
Step 2 — Find the real length of the bacterium:
Real size = image size ÷ magnification = 30 mm ÷ 5000 = 0.006 mm = 6 μm
This is consistent with the expected size range for a bacterium (1–5 μm — slightly on the large side, possibly a rod-shaped bacillus).
Exam Tip: The triangle I = M × A is useful. Cover the quantity you want to find: image size = magnification × actual size; actual size = image size ÷ magnification; magnification = image size ÷ actual size.
A useful way to understand why bacteria are so much smaller than eukaryotic cells is to think about surface area to volume ratio (SA:V). For a simple cube with side length L:
As L increases, SA:V decreases. Small cells have a large SA:V — diffusion across the membrane is fast enough to keep the interior supplied with nutrients and clear of waste. Larger cells need specialised transport systems because diffusion alone is too slow.
| Cube side (μm) | SA (μm²) | Volume (μm³) | SA:V |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6 | 1 | 6.00 |
| 2 | 24 | 8 | 3.00 |
| 5 | 150 | 125 | 1.20 |
| 10 | 600 | 1000 | 0.60 |
A 1 μm bacterium has ten times the SA:V of a 10 μm animal cell — one reason prokaryotes can survive with a much simpler structure.
graph TD
A[All cells] --> B[Eukaryotic cells]
A --> C[Prokaryotic cells]
B --> D[Animal cell]
B --> E[Plant cell]
B --> F[Fungal cell]
C --> G[Bacteria]
D --> H[Nucleus + mitochondria + 80S ribosomes]
E --> I[+ cell wall + chloroplasts + permanent vacuole]
G --> J[No nucleus, circular DNA, plasmids, 70S ribosomes]
The same question — "Compare animal and bacterial cells" — can earn anywhere from grade 3 to grade 9 depending on the precision of language. Use the contrasts below to calibrate your own answers.
Grade 3 (basic, often loses marks for vague terms):
"Animal cells have a nucleus but bacteria don't. Animal cells are bigger. Bacteria have a cell wall."
Grade 5 (uses correct terminology but lacks detail):
"Animal cells are eukaryotic and contain a nucleus and organelles such as mitochondria. Bacteria are prokaryotic — they have no true nucleus. Instead, their genetic material is free in the cytoplasm. Bacteria also have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan."
Grade 7 (precise, with numerical values and named structures):
"Animal cells are eukaryotes (10–30 μm diameter) with a membrane-bound nucleus, 80S ribosomes, and membrane-bound organelles including mitochondria. Bacteria are prokaryotes (1–5 μm diameter) with a single circular chromosome free in the cytoplasm, smaller 70S ribosomes, and often additional small rings of DNA called plasmids."
Grade 9 (synthesises concepts and explains significance):
"The defining difference is compartmentalisation: eukaryotic animal cells confine DNA within a nuclear envelope and aerobic respiration within mitochondria, allowing complex regulation and larger cell size (10–30 μm). Prokaryotic bacteria lack these membrane-bound compartments, so all metabolism occurs in a single cytoplasm — this constrains them to a small size (1–5 μm) where the high surface-area-to-volume ratio makes diffusion-based exchange viable. The smaller 70S ribosomes of prokaryotes (versus 80S in eukaryotes) are also the basis for selective antibiotic action."
Edexcel alignment: This content is aligned with Edexcel GCSE Biology (1BI0) specification Topic 1 Key concepts in biology — specifically 1.1 Eukaryotes and prokaryotes and 1.2 Plant and animal cells. Assessed on Paper 1.