The Women's Movement

The women's movement (also known as second-wave feminism) emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, challenging the inequality and discrimination faced by American women. Building on the experiences of the wartime workforce and inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, women campaigned for equal pay, equal opportunities, reproductive rights, and an end to sex discrimination. This lesson covers the background, key events, figures, and achievements of the movement.

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Background: Women in Post-War America

After the Second World War, women were encouraged to return to the home and embrace their role as wives and mothers. The ideal of the "happy housewife" was promoted by advertising, television, and popular culture.

Aspect	Detail
Employment	Women were concentrated in low-paid, "female" jobs such as teaching, nursing, and secretarial work
Pay	Women earned approximately 59 cents for every dollar earned by men
Education	Although more women attended college, they were often steered away from careers in law, medicine, and business
Legal status	In many states, women could not serve on juries, own property independently, or obtain credit without a male co-signer
Social expectations	Women were expected to prioritise marriage and motherhood over careers

Exam Tip: Understanding the limitations women faced in the 1950s is essential context for explaining why the women's movement emerged in the 1960s. AQA expects you to explain both the push and pull factors.

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The Spark: The Feminine Mystique (1963)

Betty Friedan's book The Feminine Mystique is often credited with reigniting the women's movement. Friedan argued that many American women were deeply unhappy despite material comfort, trapped by what she called "the problem that has no name" — the frustration of intelligent, educated women confined to domestic roles.

The book sold over 3 million copies and struck a chord with millions of women across the country.

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Key Events and Milestones

Date	Event
1963	Equal Pay Act — made it illegal to pay women less than men for the same work (though enforcement was weak)
1964	Civil Rights Act — Title VII banned sex discrimination in employment. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was created to enforce this
1966	National Organization for Women (NOW) founded by Betty Friedan and others. Campaigned for equal rights in employment, education, and politics
1970	Women's Strike for Equality (26 August) — tens of thousands of women marched in New York and other cities on the 50th anniversary of women's suffrage
1972	Title IX of the Education Amendments banned sex discrimination in federally funded education programmes, including sport
1972	Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) passed by Congress and sent to the states for ratification
1973	Roe v. Wade — the Supreme Court ruled that women had a constitutional right to an abortion

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Key Figures

Figure	Contribution
Betty Friedan	Author of The Feminine Mystique; co-founder and first president of NOW
Gloria Steinem	Journalist and activist; co-founded Ms. magazine (1972), which became the voice of the women's movement
Shirley Chisholm	First African American woman elected to Congress (1968); ran for the Democratic presidential nomination (1972)
Phyllis Schlafly	Conservative activist who led the campaign against the ERA, arguing it would undermine traditional family values

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The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

The ERA stated: "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." It was passed by Congress in 1972 but required ratification by 38 states within seven years (later extended to 1982).

For the ERA	Against the ERA
Would guarantee constitutional equality for women	Phyllis Schlafly argued it would force women into military combat
Would strengthen existing anti-discrimination laws	Opponents claimed it would destroy the traditional family
Supported by NOW and the majority of the public	Conservative religious groups saw it as an attack on family values
35 states ratified it by 1977	It fell three states short of the 38 needed for ratification

Exam Tip: The failure of the ERA is important evidence that the women's movement faced significant opposition. In "How successful was the women's movement?" questions, you must address both achievements and setbacks.

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Achievements and Limitations

Achievements	Limitations
The pay gap narrowed (though it did not close)	Women still earned less than men for comparable work
More women entered higher education and professional careers	The "glass ceiling" prevented many women from reaching senior positions
Title IX transformed women's sport and education	The ERA failed to be ratified
Roe v. Wade established reproductive rights	Abortion remained deeply controversial and access varied by state
Greater awareness of issues like domestic violence and sexual harassment	Social attitudes changed slowly, especially in conservative areas

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The Women's Movement and Other Movements

The women's movement was inspired by and connected to other social movements of the 1960s and 1970s.

• The Civil Rights Movement provided both inspiration and a model for organising and protest.
• However, some women felt marginalised within the civil rights and anti-war movements, where male leaders often dominated.
• Women of colour sometimes felt that mainstream feminism focused too much on the concerns of white, middle-class women and did not address issues of race and poverty.

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Extended Worked Paragraph: Significance of The Feminine Mystique