Relations with Scotland: The Great Cause

Edward I's involvement in Scotland began with a diplomatic and legal intervention but escalated into a full-scale war of conquest that would consume the last decade of his reign. This lesson examines the origins of the Scottish crisis, the Great Cause, and Edward's claim to overlordship.

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Scotland Before the Crisis

In the late 13th century, Scotland was an independent kingdom with its own king, laws, and institutions. Relations between England and Scotland had been generally peaceful for much of the century.

Feature	Detail
King	Alexander III (reigned 1249–1286)
Government	Independent monarchy with its own parliament, laws, and Church
Economy	Based on agriculture, fishing, and trade; wool exports were significant
Relations with England	Generally peaceful; Alexander III was married to Edward I's sister, Margaret
Border	The border between England and Scotland was broadly established along its modern line

Key Term: Scottish kings held some lands in England (such as the Honour of Huntingdon) and for those lands they were technically vassals of the English king. However, Scotland itself was an independent kingdom. This ambiguity over feudal relationships would become central to the conflict.

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The Succession Crisis (1286–1290)

The crisis began with a series of tragic deaths in the Scottish royal family.

Date	Event
19 March 1286	Alexander III is killed when his horse stumbles over a cliff in a storm at Kinghorn, Fife
1286	Alexander's three children had already died. The heir is his granddaughter, Margaret (the "Maid of Norway"), a 3-year-old child living in Norway
1290	Margaret dies on the journey from Norway to Scotland, probably in Orkney

With Margaret's death, the Scottish royal line was extinct. There was no clear heir, and 13 claimants came forward, each asserting their right to the Scottish throne.

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The Guardians of Scotland

Between 1286 and 1292, Scotland was governed by a council of Guardians — senior nobles and churchmen appointed to rule during the interregnum (period without a king).

The Guardians faced a difficult situation. With multiple claimants and the risk of civil war, they made the fateful decision to invite Edward I of England to arbitrate the dispute and choose the rightful king.

Exam Tip: The Guardians' decision to invite Edward to arbitrate was pragmatic — they needed a neutral authority to prevent civil war. However, it gave Edward an opportunity to assert his authority over Scotland. AQA often asks whether the Guardians made a mistake. Consider both the risks of civil war and the risks of English interference.

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Edward's Claim to Overlordship

Before agreeing to arbitrate, Edward insisted that all claimants and the Scottish nobles acknowledge him as Lord Paramount (feudal overlord) of Scotland. This was a crucial demand that would have far-reaching consequences.

Edward's Evidence for Overlordship

Edward assembled a dossier of historical and legal evidence to support his claim:

Evidence	Detail
Legendary claims	Stories of ancient British kings (like Brutus) who supposedly ruled all of Britain
Historical submissions	Previous Scottish kings who had paid homage to English kings (though the Scots argued this was for English lands only, not for Scotland itself)
The Treaty of Falaise (1174)	William the Lion of Scotland had acknowledged English overlordship after being captured — but this was revoked by the Quitclaim of Canterbury (1189)
Feudal law	Edward argued that in any dispute, the matter should be referred to the feudal superior — which he claimed to be

The Scots were reluctant but, under pressure, agreed to accept Edward's arbitration. The claimants individually acknowledged his overlordship.

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The Great Cause (1291–1292)

The Great Cause was the legal process by which Edward adjudicated the competing claims to the Scottish throne. It was held at Berwick-upon-Tweed, on the Anglo-Scottish border.

The Main Claimants

Although 13 men put forward claims, only two had strong cases:

Claimant	Basis of Claim	Argument
John Balliol	Great-great-grandson of David I through the eldest daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon	Claimed primogeniture — the right of the eldest line, even through a female
Robert Bruce (the Competitor)	Grandson of David I through the second daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon	Claimed proximity of blood — he was one generation closer to the royal line than Balliol

The Decision

A panel of 104 auditors (80 chosen by Balliol, 80 by Bruce, minus overlaps, plus Edward's own nominees) examined the claims according to the principles of feudal law.

On 17 November 1292, the panel ruled in favour of John Balliol. The decision was based on the principle of primogeniture — the right of the eldest line took precedence over proximity of blood.

Aspect	Detail
Date of judgement	17 November 1292
Winner	John Balliol
Legal principle	Primogeniture (right of the eldest line)
Coronation	Balliol was crowned at Scone on 30 November 1292

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Edward's Interference with Scotland

After placing Balliol on the throne, Edward treated him as a subordinate rather than an independent king.

Action	Detail
Legal appeals	Edward insisted that legal cases from Scotland could be appealed to English courts, undermining Scottish judicial independence
Military service	Edward demanded that Balliol provide Scottish troops for English wars in France
Humiliation	Edward summoned Balliol to appear before the English Parliament to answer complaints from Scottish subjects — deeply humiliating for a king

These actions provoked a Scottish backlash. In 1295, a council of Scottish nobles effectively took power from Balliol and negotiated the Auld Alliance with France — a mutual defence pact against England.

Exam Tip: The Auld Alliance (1295) between Scotland and France is a key turning point. It committed Scotland to war with England and would shape Anglo-Scottish-French relations for centuries. Always mention it when discussing the causes of the Scottish wars.

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The Sack of Berwick and the Defeat of Balliol (1296)

Edward responded to the Auld Alliance with overwhelming force.

Date	Event
March 1296	Edward sacks Berwick, killing thousands of inhabitants
April 1296	English forces defeat the Scots at the Battle of Dunbar
July 1296	Balliol surrenders and is stripped of his kingship. His royal tabard (coat of arms) was publicly torn from his body — earning him the nickname "Toom Tabard" (Empty Coat)
1296	Edward seizes the Stone of Scone (the Stone of Destiny) on which Scottish kings were crowned and takes it to Westminster — a deliberate act of humiliation

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Extended Worked Paragraph: "Edward I's decision to assert overlordship of Scotland was the main cause of the Anglo-Scottish conflict that broke out in 1296. How far do you agree?" (Q8, 16 marks)