Brain & Neuropsychology: Revision

This lesson consolidates all the key concepts from the Brain and Neuropsychology topic for AQA GCSE Psychology.

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Brain Structure Summary

Region	Location	Key Functions
Frontal lobe	Front	Movement, thinking, planning, personality, speech (Broca's area)
Temporal lobe	Sides	Hearing, memory (hippocampus), language comprehension (Wernicke's area)
Parietal lobe	Top	Touch, spatial awareness, numbers
Occipital lobe	Back	Vision (visual cortex)
Cerebellum	Back/base	Coordination, balance, procedural memory
Corpus callosum	Middle	Connects left and right hemispheres

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Key Studies

Study	Key Finding
Sperry (1968)	Split-brain patients showed lateralisation: left hemisphere = language, right = spatial/non-verbal
Penfield	Electrical stimulation of temporal lobe triggered memories; mapped motor and sensory cortex
Tulving (1989)	PET scans showed episodic and semantic memory use different brain regions (HERA model)
Maguire et al. (2000)	Taxi drivers had larger hippocampi — learning changes brain structure
Hebb (1949)	"Neurons that fire together wire together" — theoretical basis for neuroplasticity

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Neurons and Synaptic Transmission

Concept	Description
Sensory neuron	Receptor → CNS
Relay neuron	Within CNS
Motor neuron	CNS → Effector
Synapse	Gap between neurons
Neurotransmitter	Chemical messenger crossing the synapse
Excitatory	Makes post-synaptic neuron more likely to fire
Inhibitory	Makes post-synaptic neuron less likely to fire

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Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter	Key Function	Linked to
Serotonin	Mood, sleep, appetite	Depression (low levels); SSRIs increase levels
Dopamine	Reward, motivation, movement	Addiction (surges); Parkinson's (low levels)
Adrenaline	Fight or flight response	Anxiety (excess); stress response

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Fight or Flight Response

1. Amygdala detects threat → signals hypothalamus
2. Sympathetic nervous system activated → adrenal glands release adrenaline
3. Physiological changes: increased heart rate, breathing, muscle tension, pupil dilation
4. Body prepared to fight or flee
5. Parasympathetic nervous system returns body to rest after threat passes

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Lateralisation

Left Hemisphere	Right Hemisphere
Language (Broca's, Wernicke's)	Spatial awareness
Analytical thinking	Face recognition
Right side of body	Left side of body

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Big-picture map of the topic

mindmap
  root((Brain & Neuropsychology))
    Structure
      Frontal lobe
      Temporal lobe
      Parietal lobe
      Occipital lobe
      Cerebellum
    Lateralisation
      Sperry split-brain
      Broca / Wernicke
    Cells
      Neurons
      Synapse
      Neurotransmitters
    Stress
      Amygdala
      Sympathetic NS
      Adrenaline
    Studies
      Penfield
      Tulving HERA
      Hebb / Maguire
    Scanning
      CT
      PET
      fMRI
      EEG

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Common Exam Questions

"Describe the function of the frontal lobe." (2 marks)

The frontal lobe is located at the front of the brain. It is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as planning, decision-making, and reasoning. It also contains the motor cortex (which controls voluntary movement) and Broca's area (which is involved in speech production).

"Describe and evaluate Sperry's split-brain research." (6 marks)

Sperry studied patients who had their corpus callosum cut to treat epilepsy. He flashed images to one visual field at a time. When an image was shown to the right visual field (processed by the left hemisphere), patients could say what they saw because the left hemisphere controls language. When shown to the left visual field (right hemisphere), patients could not verbally report what they saw but could identify the object by touch with their left hand. This demonstrates lateralisation of function.

Strength: The study provided groundbreaking evidence for lateralisation and Sperry won the Nobel Prize. Weakness: Split-brain patients are unusual (they had severe epilepsy and surgery), so findings may not generalise to people with intact brains.

"Explain how adrenaline is involved in the fight or flight response." (3 marks)

When a threat is perceived, the amygdala sends signals to the hypothalamus, which activates the sympathetic nervous system. This causes the adrenal glands to release adrenaline into the bloodstream. Adrenaline causes physiological changes such as increased heart rate, faster breathing, and muscle tension, preparing the body to fight the threat or flee from it.

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Revision Checklist

• I can describe the structure and function of each brain lobe and the cerebellum
• I can explain lateralisation and describe Sperry's split-brain research
• I can describe the three types of neuron and synaptic transmission
• I can explain the roles of serotonin, dopamine, and adrenaline
• I can describe the fight or flight response
• I can describe Penfield's study of the interpretive cortex
• I can describe Tulving's PET scan study (HERA model)
• I can explain Hebb's theory ("neurons that fire together wire together")
• I can compare brain scanning techniques (PET, fMRI, EEG)

Final Exam Tip: Brain and neuropsychology questions often ask you to apply knowledge to scenarios. For example, you might be asked to explain what would happen if a specific brain region were damaged. Always link the brain region to its function and then describe the consequences of damage.

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Key Points

• The brain has four lobes (frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital) plus the cerebellum, each with specialised functions.
• Lateralisation: left hemisphere = language, right = spatial; demonstrated by Sperry's split-brain studies.
• Three neurotransmitters: serotonin (mood), dopamine (reward), adrenaline (fight or flight).
• The fight or flight response prepares the body for action through the sympathetic nervous system.
• Key studies: Sperry, Penfield, Tulving, Maguire, Hebb.

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Worked case study: Phineas Gage (1848)

Phineas Gage is the single most famous case in neuropsychology and is a reliable anchor for nearly any "damage to the frontal lobe" exam question.

Aim: To document the behavioural and personality changes in a man whose frontal lobe had been severely damaged by an industrial accident.

Procedure: Gage was a 25-year-old railway foreman working on the Rutland and Burlington Railroad in Vermont, USA. On 13 September 1848 a premature explosion drove a tamping iron (about 1.1 metres long, 3 cm thick, weighing 6 kg) through his left cheek, behind his left eye, and out of the top of his skull, destroying much of his left frontal lobe. He remained conscious, walked to a cart, and was treated by Dr John Harlow, who documented the case over the following years.