Development: Revision and Exam Practice

This lesson consolidates all the key concepts from the Development topic, providing a comprehensive revision resource for AQA GCSE Psychology.

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Key Theories Compared

Feature	Piaget	Dweck	Willingham
Focus	Stages of cognitive development	Mindset and motivation	How the brain learns (cognitive science)
View of child	Active learner who constructs knowledge	Motivated by beliefs about ability	Learner who needs knowledge and practice
Stages?	Yes — 4 universal stages	No stages	No stages
Role of effort	Child explores and discovers	Effort is key to growth	Practice is essential
Educational implication	Match teaching to developmental stage	Praise effort, promote growth mindset	Teach knowledge, use evidence-based strategies
Learning styles?	Not discussed	Not discussed	Rejects them — no evidence

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Piaget's Stages: Quick Reference

Stage	Age	Key Features	Key Limitation
Sensorimotor	0–2	Senses and motor actions; object permanence	Cannot think symbolically
Pre-operational	2–7	Symbolic thinking; language	Egocentrism; cannot conserve
Concrete operational	7–11	Logical thinking about concrete things; conservation	Cannot think abstractly
Formal operational	11+	Abstract and hypothetical thinking	Not all individuals reach this stage

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How the Theories Fit Together

flowchart TB
    A[Development]
    A --> B["Piaget<br/>Cognitive structure"]
    A --> C["Dweck<br/>Beliefs about ability"]
    A --> D["Willingham<br/>How the brain learns"]
    A --> E["Neuroplasticity<br/>Maguire et al. 2000"]
    B --> B1[4 universal stages]
    B --> B2[Schemas + equilibration]
    C --> C1[Fixed mindset]
    C --> C2[Growth mindset]
    D --> D1[Knowledge before skill]
    D --> D2[Practice + retrieval]
    D --> D3[Rejects learning styles]
    E --> E1["Brain physically changes<br/>with experience"]
    C2 -.supports.-> E1
    D2 -.supports.-> E1

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Key Studies Summary

Study	Key Finding	Supports/Challenges
McGarrigle & Donaldson (1974)	Naughty Teddy — more children conserved when change was accidental	Challenges Piaget — underestimated children
Hughes (1975)	Policeman doll — children showed less egocentrism in meaningful tasks	Challenges Piaget — underestimated children
Dweck & Mueller (1998)	Praising effort led to better persistence than praising ability	Supports Dweck's mindset theory
Blackwell et al. (2007)	Growth mindset intervention improved maths grades	Supports Dweck's mindset theory
Pashler et al. (2008)	No credible evidence for matching teaching to learning styles	Challenges learning styles; supports Willingham
Maguire et al. (2000)	Taxi drivers had larger hippocampi — learning changes brain structure	Supports neuroplasticity and effects of learning on brain

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Nature vs Nurture: Where Each Theory Falls

Theory/Concept	Nature	Nurture	Interactionist
Piaget	Stages are biologically determined (nature)	Experience drives progression through stages (nurture)	Both
Dweck	Some people may have natural tendencies towards fixed or growth mindset	Mindset can be changed through intervention and praise	Mainly nurture
Learning styles	Assumes people are born with a preferred style (nature)	Can learn through any style	Mainly nature
Willingham	Brain has cognitive limitations	Knowledge and practice can develop ability	Both
Neuroplasticity	Brain has biological potential	Experience physically changes the brain	Both

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Common Exam Questions

"Describe Piaget's theory of cognitive development." (6 marks)

A strong answer should include:

1. Children progress through four stages in a fixed order
2. Name and briefly describe each stage with approximate ages
3. Key concepts: schemas, assimilation, accommodation, equilibration
4. Key features at each stage (e.g. object permanence, egocentrism, conservation, abstract thinking)

"Evaluate Piaget's theory." (4 marks)

Strength: The theory has had a huge impact on education — it led to child-centred learning and the idea that children should not be taught concepts they are not ready for.

Weakness: Piaget may have underestimated children's abilities. McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974) showed that when conservation tasks were made less confusing (Naughty Teddy), more children aged 4–6 could conserve. This suggests the way Piaget asked questions may have confused children.

"Explain one way Dweck's mindset theory can be applied in education." (3 marks)

Teachers should praise students for their effort and strategies (process praise) rather than for their innate ability (person praise). Dweck and Mueller (1998) found that children praised for effort were more likely to persist with difficult tasks and enjoy challenges, while those praised for ability gave up more easily. This suggests that the type of feedback teachers give can promote a growth mindset.

"Compare Piaget and Willingham's views on education." (4 marks)

Piaget emphasised discovery learning where children explore and construct their own understanding, with teachers acting as facilitators. Willingham, in contrast, argues that teachers should explicitly teach content knowledge because factual knowledge is essential for critical thinking. Piaget believed in readiness — waiting until a child is developmentally ready for a concept — while Willingham focuses on using evidence-based strategies (such as retrieval practice and spaced practice) that are effective for all learners regardless of developmental stage.

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Revision Checklist

• I can explain the nature vs nurture debate and the interactionist position
• I can describe Piaget's four stages of cognitive development with ages and key features
• I can explain schemas, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration
• I can describe and evaluate Piaget's conservation experiments
• I can describe and evaluate Piaget's overall theory (using McGarrigle and Donaldson, Hughes)
• I can describe Dweck's fixed and growth mindsets
• I can describe and evaluate Dweck's research (Dweck and Mueller, Blackwell et al.)
• I can describe the VAK model of learning styles and evaluate it
• I can explain how learning affects brain development (neuroplasticity, Maguire et al.)
• I can describe Willingham's key principles and his critique of learning styles

Final Exam Tip: Always use specific named studies as evidence in your answers. The mark schemes award credit for named researchers and specific findings, not just general statements about "research showing..."

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Key Points