Analysing Spoken Language

The analysis of spoken language is a distinct and important skill. Spoken language differs from written language in fundamental ways — it is typically produced in real time, without the opportunity for editing, and it is shaped by the immediate social context in which it occurs. This lesson covers the key concepts, frameworks, and techniques you need to analyse spoken language effectively at A-Level.

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Transcription Conventions

Spoken language data is usually presented in the form of a transcript — a written representation of spoken language. Transcripts use special conventions to capture features of speech that have no equivalent in standard written English.

The most widely used system is based on the conventions developed by Gail Jefferson (used in Conversation Analysis):

Symbol	Meaning	Example
(.)	Micropause (less than a second)	"I think (.) yeah (.) probably"
(2.0)	Timed pause in seconds	"well (2.0) I suppose so"
[text]	Overlapping speech	A: "I was going to [the shop]" B: "[yeah I know]"
=	Latching (no gap between speakers)	A: "I agree=" B: "=me too"
CAPS	Louder speech	"I said NO"
°text°	Quieter speech	"I'm not sure °about that°"
>text<	Faster speech	">I couldn't believe it<"
	Slower speech	""
te::xt	Sound stretching/elongation	"we::ll I don't know"
↑ ↓	Rising/falling intonation	"really↑" (surprise/question)
-	Self-interruption/cut-off	"I was going to the sh- the supermarket"
(( ))	Non-verbal information	"((laughs))" or "((gestures))"
bold/underline	Emphasis/stress	"I never said that"

Key Definition: Transcript — a written record of spoken language, using special conventions to represent features such as pauses, overlaps, intonation, volume, and pace that cannot be captured by standard written punctuation.

It is important to remember that a transcript is a representation of speech, not the speech itself. Important features such as body language, facial expression, physical context, and full prosodic detail are inevitably lost in transcription.

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Features of Spontaneous Speech

Spontaneous speech is characterised by a range of features that reflect its real-time production:

Feature	Description	Function
Fillers	Non-lexical vocalisations (um, er, uh) and lexical fillers (like, you know, I mean)	Holding the floor while planning speech; signalling thinking time
False starts	Beginning an utterance and then restarting	"I was going — I went to the — yeah, I went to town"
Self-repairs	Correcting an error mid-utterance	"She lives in Manchester — sorry, Birmingham"
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases	"It was really, really, really good"
Hesitation	Pausing within or between utterances	"I think (.) maybe (.) we should go"
Incomplete utterances	Trailing off without completing a thought	"Well, if you think about it..."
Vague language	Imprecise expressions	"sort of," "kind of," "thing," "stuff," "whatever," "and everything"
Contractions	Shortened word forms	"don't," "can't," "we're," "it's," "gonna," "wanna"
Elision	Dropping sounds in connected speech	"probably" → "probly"; "because" → "cos"
Non-standard grammar	Grammatical forms that differ from Standard English	"We was going," "I done it," "She ain't coming"
Discourse markers	Words that structure the discourse	"right," "so," "well," "anyway," "basically"

These features are not errors — they are natural characteristics of real-time language production. The linguist Michael McCarthy (1998) emphasised that spoken grammar is a system in its own right, not a deficient version of written grammar.

Key Definition: Non-fluency features — characteristics of spontaneous speech that reflect real-time language production, including fillers, false starts, self-repairs, hesitations, and repetitions. These are natural features of spoken language, not errors.

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Planned vs. Unplanned Speech

Spoken language exists on a continuum from highly planned to completely spontaneous:

More planned ←	→ More spontaneous
Scripted speech (newsreader, actor)	Casual conversation
Prepared speech (lecture, sermon)	Argument or heated discussion
Semi-prepared (job interview, oral exam)	Phone call with friend
Rehearsed (presentation, wedding speech)	Storytelling among friends

The degree of planning affects the language features a spoken text is likely to display:

Feature	Planned Speech	Spontaneous Speech
Fluency	Generally fluent; few hesitations or repairs	Frequent hesitations, fillers, false starts, repairs
Vocabulary	Formal, precise, may be pre-selected	Informal, vague, colloquial
Grammar	Complex, complete sentences; closer to written norms	Incomplete sentences, non-standard forms, loose coordination
Structure	Clear, logical organisation	Topics shift, digress, and overlap
Prosody	Controlled intonation, pace, and stress	Variable; influenced by emotion and real-time interaction

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Context and Power in Spoken Interaction

Spoken interactions are profoundly shaped by the context in which they occur and the power relations between participants.

Power in Conversation

Power can be signalled and enacted through language in several ways:

Power Strategy	Description	Example
Interruption	Taking the floor before the current speaker has finished	A more powerful speaker may interrupt more frequently
Topic control	Initiating, changing, or closing topics	A chair of a meeting controls the agenda and topics
Question-answer patterns	The person asking questions holds the power (e.g., interviewer, teacher, police officer)	"Where were you on the night of the 15th?"
Directives	Using commands and instructions	"Sit down." "Open your books to page 42."
Terms of address	Using first names, titles, or other forms of address	A teacher may use first names for students while being addressed as "Miss" or "Sir"
Amount of talk	Dominant speakers tend to speak more and hold the floor longer	In institutional settings, the person with authority often speaks most

The linguist Norman Fairclough (1989, Language and Power) argued that power relations are both reflected in and constructed through language use. Analysing the linguistic features of spoken interactions can reveal hidden power dynamics.