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Discourse analysis examines how whole texts are organised and structured — how they achieve cohesion (the linguistic links that tie a text together) and coherence (the overall sense and logic of a text). It also encompasses the study of spoken interaction, including how conversations are structured and managed. Discourse analysis operates at the level above the sentence, looking at how sentences and utterances combine to form meaningful texts.
Cohesion refers to the linguistic devices that connect different parts of a text, creating a sense of unity and flow. The linguists M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan (1976, Cohesion in English) identified five main types of cohesive device:
| Device | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Reference | Using pronouns, demonstratives, or comparatives to refer to something mentioned elsewhere | "Sarah opened the door. She looked surprised." (pronoun reference) |
| Substitution | Replacing a word or phrase with a substitute form | "I'll have a coffee." "I'll have one too." ("one" substitutes for "a coffee") |
| Ellipsis | Omitting a word or phrase that can be understood from context | "Would you like tea or coffee?" "Coffee, please." (verb "I would like" is elided) |
| Conjunction | Using connective words to show relationships between clauses or sentences | "It rained all day. However, we still enjoyed the trip." |
| Device | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Repetition | Repeating the same word or phrase | "Education is important. Education transforms lives. Education is a right." |
| Synonymy | Using words with similar meanings | "The house was enormous. The building dominated the street." |
| Antonymy | Using words with opposite meanings to create contrast | "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times." |
| Hyponymy | Using words in a general-to-specific or specific-to-general relationship | "We saw several animals: lions, elephants, and giraffes." ("animals" is the superordinate; the others are hyponyms) |
| Collocation | Using words that commonly co-occur | "fish and chips," "law and order," "black and white" |
Key Definition: Cohesion (Halliday and Hasan, 1976) — the linguistic links that bind a text together, including grammatical devices (reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction) and lexical devices (repetition, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, collocation).
While cohesion is about the linguistic links within a text, coherence is about whether the text makes sense as a whole. A text can be cohesive without being coherent, and vice versa.
Key Definition: Coherence — the overall sense, logic, and meaningfulness of a text. A coherent text is one that the reader or listener can interpret as a unified, meaningful whole, even if explicit cohesive devices are minimal.
Coherence depends on:
Reference can point backwards or forwards in a text:
| Type | Direction | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anaphoric | Backward | Refers back to something already mentioned | "The Prime Minister gave a speech. She outlined three key policies." ("She" refers back to "The Prime Minister") |
| Cataphoric | Forward | Refers forward to something yet to be mentioned | "This is what you need to know: the deadline has changed." ("This" refers forward to the information that follows) |
| Exophoric | Outside the text | Refers to something in the external context, not in the text itself | "Look at that!" (pointing to something in the physical environment) |
Cataphoric reference is particularly useful for creating suspense, anticipation, or emphasis — the reader is prompted to continue reading to discover what the reference points to. Tabloid headlines often use cataphoric reference: "He was the man who changed everything" — the reader must read on to find out who "He" is.
Discourse markers are words or phrases that organise and structure discourse, signalling relationships between parts of a text or managing the flow of conversation.
| Function | Written discourse markers | Spoken discourse markers |
|---|---|---|
| Adding information | furthermore, moreover, in addition, also | and, plus, as well, on top of that |
| Contrasting | however, nevertheless, on the other hand, conversely | but, though, mind you, then again |
| Cause/result | therefore, consequently, as a result, thus | so, that's why, cos |
| Sequencing | firstly, subsequently, finally, in conclusion | right, next, then, anyway |
| Exemplifying | for example, for instance, such as, namely | like, say, I mean |
| Topic management | regarding, with respect to, turning to | anyway, so, right, OK |
In spoken language, discourse markers serve additional interactional functions:
Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson (1974, A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn-Taking for Conversation) developed the most influential model of turn-taking in conversation. They proposed that conversation is organised by a set of rules:
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