Energy Security
This lesson examines energy as a critical resource, exploring the global energy mix, the concept of energy security, the geopolitics of energy, and the transition towards renewable sources. Energy security is a key component of AQA A-Level Geography Paper 2 resource security content.
The Global Energy Mix
The energy mix refers to the combination of energy sources used by a country or the world. Globally, energy consumption remains dominated by fossil fuels, though renewables are growing rapidly.
Global Primary Energy Consumption by Source (2023, approximate)
| Source | Share of Global Energy |
|---|
| Oil | 31% |
| Coal | 27% |
| Natural gas | 24% |
| Hydroelectric | 7% |
| Renewables (wind, solar, biomass, geothermal) | 8% |
| Nuclear | 4% |
Key Trends
- Fossil fuels still account for approximately 82% of global primary energy
- Coal use is declining in Europe and North America but still growing in parts of Asia
- Natural gas has expanded as a "transition fuel" — lower CO₂ emissions than coal
- Renewable energy (especially solar and wind) is the fastest-growing energy source
- Solar PV costs fell by approximately 89% between 2010 and 2022 (IRENA)
- Wind power costs fell by approximately 69% over the same period
- Global energy demand continues to rise, driven by population growth and economic development
What Is Energy Security?
Energy security is the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price (IEA definition).
Dimensions of Energy Security
| Dimension | Description |
|---|
| Availability | Physical existence of energy resources and infrastructure to extract and deliver them |
| Affordability | Energy prices that consumers and businesses can sustain |
| Reliability | Consistent supply without disruptions |
| Sustainability | Energy production that minimises environmental harm and is viable long-term |
| Sovereignty | Control over energy resources and decisions within national borders |
Factors Affecting Energy Security
- Resource endowment: countries with fossil fuel reserves (e.g., Saudi Arabia, Russia, USA) have greater energy sovereignty
- Import dependency: the EU imports approximately 58% of its energy; Japan imports approximately 88%
- Energy mix diversity: diversified energy mixes reduce vulnerability to disruption of any single source
- Infrastructure: pipelines, power grids, storage facilities, refineries
- Geopolitics: political relationships with energy suppliers; sanctions, conflicts
- Technology: capacity to extract, generate, store, and distribute energy
- Climate policy: decarbonisation targets may constrain fossil fuel use
Energy Pathways
Energy pathways are the routes by which energy is transported from source to consumer. These can be physical (pipelines, shipping routes) or virtual (electricity grids).
Key Global Energy Pathways
- Oil tanker routes: through the Strait of Hormuz (approximately 21% of global oil), Strait of Malacca (approximately 16%), Suez Canal
- Gas pipelines: Russia to Europe (Nord Stream, now largely offline; TurkStream); Central Asia to China
- LNG shipping routes: Qatar, Australia, and USA to Europe and Asia
- Electricity interconnectors: cross-border electricity cables (e.g., UK-France, UK-Norway)
Chokepoints
Chokepoints are narrow passages through which energy must flow, creating vulnerability:
| Chokepoint | Daily Oil Flow (approx.) | Risk |
|---|
| Strait of Hormuz | 21 million barrels | Iranian conflict, piracy |
| Strait of Malacca | 16 million barrels | Piracy, Chinese strategic interest |
| Suez Canal | 5 million barrels | Conflict, blockage (e.g., Ever Given 2021, Houthi attacks 2024) |
| Bab el-Mandab | 6 million barrels | Yemeni conflict, piracy |
| Turkish Straits | 3 million barrels | Political tensions |
The Resource Curse and Dutch Disease
The Resource Curse
The resource curse (also known as the paradox of plenty) describes how countries with abundant natural resources, particularly oil and minerals, often experience slower economic growth, greater inequality, and more corruption than resource-poor countries.
Evidence
- Nigeria: despite earning over $600 billion in oil revenue since the 1970s, approximately 40% of the population lives in extreme poverty
- Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Chad: oil wealth concentrated in elite hands, with limited development for broader population
- Democratic Republic of Congo: vast mineral wealth but one of the world's poorest countries
Mechanisms
- Dutch Disease: resource exports strengthen the currency, making other exports (manufactured goods, agriculture) uncompetitive
- Rent-seeking: political elites capture resource revenues for personal gain rather than investing in development
- Weak institutions: resource revenues reduce the incentive for governments to build effective tax systems and accountable institutions
- Conflict: resource wealth funds armed groups and incentivises conflict over control of resources
- Volatility: commodity price fluctuations create economic instability
The Dutch Disease in Detail
The term "Dutch Disease" originates from the Netherlands' experience after discovering natural gas in the North Sea in 1959:
- Gas exports increased foreign currency inflows
- The Dutch guilder strengthened (appreciated)
- Dutch manufactured exports became more expensive and less competitive
- The manufacturing sector contracted
- When gas revenues eventually declined, the economy lacked a diversified productive base
Countries That Have Avoided the Resource Curse