Conscience

The concept of conscience — the inner sense of right and wrong — is one of the most debated topics in ethics and philosophy of religion. The AQA A-Level specification requires you to understand a range of perspectives on the nature, origin, and authority of conscience, from theological accounts (Aquinas, Butler, Newman) to secular psychological explanations (Freud, Piaget, Kohlberg, Fromm). The central question is: what is conscience, and should we always follow it?

Key Definition: Conscience is the inner faculty or sense by which a person judges the moral quality of their own actions, intentions, and character. Different thinkers disagree fundamentally about its origin (God, reason, socialisation) and its authority (infallible, fallible, or merely psychological).

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Aquinas (1225–1274): Synderesis and Conscientia

Aquinas provided the most influential theological account of conscience. He distinguished between two aspects:

Synderesis

Synderesis (sometimes spelled synteresis) is the innate, unchanging disposition to seek good and avoid evil. It is a fundamental principle of practical reason implanted in all rational beings by God. Synderesis is never wrong — it always points towards the good.

Key Definition: Synderesis is the innate habit or principle by which human beings naturally orient themselves towards the good. It is the foundational principle: "do good and avoid evil."

Conscientia

Conscientia is the process of applying synderesis to specific moral situations. It is the act of practical reasoning by which we work out what is right in a particular case. Unlike synderesis, conscientia is fallible — it can make mistakes. A person may sincerely apply the principle "do good and avoid evil" but reach a wrong conclusion due to ignorance, faulty reasoning, or being misled.

Key Definition: Conscientia is the application of moral knowledge (synderesis) to particular situations through reason. It is the act of moral judgement, and it can err.

Key Implication: For Aquinas, if a person's conscience tells them that an action is right — even if they are objectively mistaken — they are morally obliged to follow it. To act against one's conscience is always sinful, because it means acting against what you believe to be right. However, a person is also morally responsible for ensuring that their conscience is properly informed through education, prayer, and the guidance of the Church.

Aspect	Synderesis	Conscientia
Nature	Innate principle	Applied reasoning
Content	"Do good, avoid evil"	Specific moral judgements
Fallible?	No	Yes — can make errors
Source	God/reason	The person's reasoning process

Evaluation (AO3):

• Strength: Aquinas provides a sophisticated account that explains both the universality of moral awareness and the reality of moral disagreement. Everyone has synderesis, but conscientia can err.
• Weakness: If conscientia can be wrong, how do we know when to trust it? Aquinas's answer (education, Church teaching) may be seen as authoritarian.

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Joseph Butler (1692–1752): Conscience as God-Given

The Anglican Bishop Joseph Butler argued that conscience is the supreme moral authority within human nature. He described it as a faculty placed in us by God that intuitively distinguishes right from wrong.

Butler saw human nature as hierarchical:

1. Conscience — the supreme authority ("our natural guide")
2. Self-love — concern for our own well-being
3. Benevolence — concern for the well-being of others
4. Particular passions — desires and appetites (e.g., hunger, anger)

Conscience sits at the top of this hierarchy. Even if self-love and benevolence conflict, conscience has the authority to adjudicate and determine the morally right course of action. Butler wrote that conscience "magisterially exerts itself" — it carries an inherent authority that does not depend on its power but on its nature.

Key Definition: For Butler, conscience is a God-given faculty of moral intuition that sits at the apex of human nature, providing authoritative guidance about right and wrong. It should always be obeyed.

Evaluation (AO3):

• Strength: Butler's account resonates with the common experience of feeling morally compelled, even against our desires.
• Weakness: Butler assumed that conscience is always reliable, but history shows that people's consciences have endorsed terrible actions (slavery, persecution). If conscience were God-given and infallible, such moral errors would be inexplicable.
• Weakness: Butler offers no method for distinguishing genuine moral insight from culturally conditioned prejudice.

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John Henry Newman (1801–1890): Conscience as the Voice of God

Cardinal Newman, the influential Anglican convert to Catholicism, went further than Butler in identifying conscience with the voice of God. Newman argued that the feelings of guilt, shame, and moral approval that accompany moral decisions are evidence that an objective moral authority exists — and that authority is God.

Newman wrote: "Conscience is the aboriginal vicar of Christ." By this he meant that conscience is God's representative within the human soul, providing moral guidance even before a person encounters formal religious teaching.

Newman distinguished between two senses of conscience:

1. The moral sense — the awareness of right and wrong.
2. The sense of duty — the feeling of obligation to act rightly.

Both point to God as their source. The very existence of conscience — particularly the feelings of guilt and moral obligation — constitutes evidence for God's existence.