Childhood

Childhood might seem like a natural, biological stage of life, but sociologists argue that it is largely a social construction — its meaning, duration, and characteristics vary across time and place. The sociology of childhood examines how society defines and treats children, whether childhood is improving or deteriorating, and how childhood experiences are shaped by social inequalities. This is a key topic for AQA A-Level Sociology (7192).

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The Social Construction of Childhood

Social construction: The idea that something is created and defined by society rather than being a natural, inevitable phenomenon. Different societies construct childhood differently — what counts as "childhood," when it begins and ends, and what children are expected to do varies enormously.

Sociologists argue that childhood is not simply a biological stage but is shaped by cultural norms, laws, and social expectations. The concept of childhood as a distinct, protected phase of life — separate from adulthood — is a relatively recent and culturally specific idea.

Evidence That Childhood Is Socially Constructed

Evidence	Detail
Historical variation	In medieval Europe, children were treated as "little adults" — they worked, dressed like adults, and participated in adult social life from a young age. There was no concept of childhood as a separate, protected stage
Cross-cultural variation	In many non-Western societies, children take on adult responsibilities — paid work, marriage, military service — at ages that would be considered unacceptable in Western cultures
Legal definitions	The age at which a person is considered a "child" varies between societies and has changed over time within the same society. In the UK, the age of criminal responsibility is 10; the voting age is 18; the age of consent is 16
Changing experiences	What children are expected to do, know, and experience has changed dramatically — compare a Victorian child working in a factory with a twenty-first-century child in full-time education

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Aries (1960): The Invention of Childhood

Philippe Aries (1960) made the influential argument that childhood did not exist in medieval society. Based on his analysis of medieval paintings, diaries, and other historical sources, Aries argued that:

• In the Middle Ages, children were not seen as fundamentally different from adults. From around the age of six or seven, they entered the adult world — working alongside adults, wearing adult clothes, and participating in adult leisure and social activities.
• The concept of childhood as a separate, distinct phase of life only began to emerge in the thirteenth century and developed slowly over the following centuries.
• By the seventeenth century, there was a growing recognition that children were different from adults and needed special treatment — education, protection, and moral guidance.
• The modern notion of childhood — a long, protected period of dependency, education, and play — is a product of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, driven by changes in education, law, and attitudes.

Key Factors in the Emergence of Modern Childhood

Factor	Explanation
Education	The introduction of compulsory schooling (1880 in England) defined children as learners rather than workers and created a clear institutional separation between childhood and adulthood
Child labour laws	Factory Acts and Mines Acts restricted and eventually prohibited child labour, removing children from the workplace
Children's rights	The gradual recognition of children's rights — protection from abuse, access to education, legal representation — defined children as vulnerable beings in need of special protection
The "child-centred" family	The family became increasingly focused on the needs and welfare of children, with parents investing more time, emotion, and resources in child-rearing
Medical advances	Lower infant mortality rates meant parents could expect most of their children to survive, encouraging greater emotional investment in each child

Criticisms of Aries

• Pollock (1983) argued that Aries overstated his case. Using diaries and autobiographies, Pollock found evidence that parents in earlier centuries did recognise childhood as a distinct stage and cared deeply about their children's welfare. The idea that children were treated as "little adults" is an exaggeration.
• Aries relied heavily on paintings and art as evidence, which may not accurately reflect the experiences of ordinary people.
• His work focused on upper-class European childhood and may not apply to other classes or cultures.

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The March of Progress View

The March of Progress view (also called the "child-centred" view) argues that childhood has been steadily improving over the past few centuries. Children today are better protected, better educated, healthier, and happier than at any previous point in history.

Evidence for the March of Progress View

Area	Improvement
Health	Infant mortality has fallen dramatically; childhood diseases have been largely eliminated through vaccination; children have access to free healthcare (NHS)
Education	Compulsory, free education is available to all children; educational standards and participation rates have risen
Legal protection	Children are protected by law from abuse, neglect, exploitation, and child labour; the Children Act (1989, 2004) enshrines children's rights
Standard of living	Children today have access to better nutrition, housing, clothing, and leisure opportunities than previous generations
Emotional investment	Parents invest more time, emotion, and resources in their children; family life is increasingly "child-centred"

Key Thinkers

• Shorter (1975) argued that modern society is characterised by child-centredness — children are at the heart of family life, and their needs take priority.
• De Mause (1974) described the history of childhood as a "nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken" — each successive generation has treated children better than the last.

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The Conflict View: Inequalities in Childhood

Conflict sociologists (Marxists, feminists, and others) challenge the March of Progress view by arguing that childhood is not a universally positive experience. They highlight inequalities between children based on class, gender, ethnicity, and disability, as well as inequalities between children and adults.

Inequalities Between Children