Applying Observation to Education

Observation is a research method in which the sociologist watches and records behaviour as it happens in a natural or controlled setting. In educational research, observation involves the researcher entering a school, classroom, or other educational environment to observe the interactions, practices, and processes that take place. Observation is particularly valued by interpretivist sociologists for its potential to produce highly valid, authentic data about the reality of school life. However, it also raises significant practical and ethical challenges, especially when the participants include children and young people.

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Types of Observation

Type	Description	Role of Researcher
Participant observation	The researcher takes part in the activities of the group being studied, often over an extended period	Active member of the setting (e.g. acting as a teacher or support worker)
Non-participant observation	The researcher watches and records behaviour without taking part	Passive observer (e.g. sitting at the back of a classroom)
Overt observation	Participants know they are being observed	Researcher's role is declared openly
Covert observation	Participants do not know they are being observed	Researcher conceals their role
Structured observation	Researcher uses a pre-determined observation schedule with specific categories to record behaviour	Systematic recording of pre-defined behaviours
Unstructured observation	Researcher makes field notes about whatever they observe, without a fixed framework	Open-ended recording of events and interactions

Key Definition: Participant observation — a research method in which the sociologist joins a group or community, participates in their daily activities, and observes their behaviour from within. In education, this typically involves spending extended time in a school, observing and sometimes participating in lessons, playground activities, and staff meetings.

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Practical Issues with Observation in Education

Gaining Access

• Overt participant observation requires the researcher to gain permission from gatekeepers (head teachers, governors, parents) to spend extended time in the school.
• Schools may be reluctant to allow prolonged observation, particularly if they are concerned about disruption, safeguarding, or negative findings.
• Covert observation avoids the problem of gatekeepers refusing access, but raises profound ethical concerns (discussed below).
• The researcher must decide on a role — e.g. teacher, classroom assistant, supply teacher, volunteer — that provides a plausible reason for being in the school.

Example: Stephen Ball (1981) was able to conduct overt participant observation at Beachside Comprehensive because he was already employed there as a teacher. His existing role gave him a legitimate presence and access to staffrooms, classrooms, and meetings. An outsider would have faced significant barriers to obtaining equivalent access.

Time Commitment

• Participant observation typically requires extended time in the field — weeks, months, or even years.
• This creates practical difficulties in terms of cost, career disruption, and personal commitment.
• In a school context, the researcher needs to be present regularly enough to become a familiar figure, reducing the likelihood that participants will alter their behaviour.
• School holidays and weekends interrupt the continuity of observation.

The Role of the Researcher

• The researcher must decide how to present themselves and what role to adopt in the school.
• Adopting a teacher role provides authority and access but may mean pupils behave as they would with any teacher, rather than naturally.
• Adopting a helper or friend role (particularly with pupils) may produce more natural behaviour but can be difficult to maintain and raises ethical questions about the nature of the relationship.

Role	Advantages	Disadvantages
Teacher	Natural presence; full access to classrooms and staffrooms	Pupils may behave as they would with any teacher; power imbalance
Teaching assistant	Less authority than a teacher; can observe classroom dynamics	May be drawn into TA duties rather than observation
Volunteer / mentor	Can build rapport with pupils; less threatening than a teacher	May not have full access to all areas; limited authority
Supply teacher	Short-term access; can observe multiple classes	Lacks continuity needed for extended observation
Pupil (covert)	Observes from the pupil perspective; no Hawthorne effect	Only possible for younger researchers; serious ethical concerns; very difficult to maintain in practice

Recording Data

• The researcher must decide when and how to record their observations.
• Taking notes openly may be distracting for pupils and teachers and may remind them they are being studied (increasing the Hawthorne effect).
• Waiting until after an observation to write up field notes risks loss of detail and accuracy.
• Video recording provides a comprehensive record but requires extensive permissions and may significantly alter behaviour.

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Ethical Issues with Observation in Education

Covert vs. Overt Observation

The choice between covert and overt observation raises fundamental ethical questions:

	Overt Observation	Covert Observation
Informed consent	Participants can give informed consent	No informed consent — participants are deceived about the researcher's true role
Hawthorne effect	Participants may alter their behaviour	Behaviour is more natural and authentic
Trust	Relationship is based on honesty	Relationship is based on deception — if discovered, trust is destroyed
BSA guidelines	Generally consistent with ethical guidelines	Conflicts with the principle of informed consent and the prohibition on deception
Children's vulnerability	Children can be told about the research (though understanding may be limited)	Observing children without their knowledge raises serious ethical concerns about exploitation and invasion of privacy

Key Point: Covert observation of children in schools is considered highly ethically problematic by most sociologists. The vulnerability of children and the power dynamics in schools make deception particularly difficult to justify. However, some researchers argue that covert methods are the only way to observe naturally occurring behaviour without the distortions caused by the Hawthorne effect.

Invasion of Privacy

• Observation — even overt observation — involves watching people go about their daily lives, which can feel intrusive.
• In schools, this includes observing potentially sensitive interactions: a teacher losing their temper, a pupil being bullied, a child struggling with learning.
• The researcher must decide what is and is not appropriate to observe and record.

Safeguarding