Consensus, Conflict and Social Action

Having studied the major sociological perspectives individually, it is essential to compare and contrast them systematically. The AQA A-Level Sociology specification requires you to understand the differences between consensus, conflict, and social action approaches to sociology, and to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each in relation to specific topics. This lesson provides a comprehensive framework for making these comparisons.

Key Definition: Sociological perspectives can be broadly classified into three types: consensus theories (functionalism) emphasise social order and shared values; conflict theories (Marxism, feminism) emphasise inequality and power struggles; and social action theories (symbolic interactionism) emphasise the meanings individuals give to their actions.

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Consensus Theories

Core Assumptions

Consensus theories (primarily functionalism) start from the assumption that social order is the normal, desirable state of society and that this order is maintained through shared norms and values (value consensus). The key question for consensus theorists is: How does society hold together?

Feature	Consensus Theories
View of society	An integrated, harmonious system
Basis of social order	Shared norms and values (value consensus)
Social institutions	Each performs positive functions for the whole
Social change	Gradual, evolutionary, adaptive
Individuals	Socialised into shared values; largely conforming
Level of analysis	Macro (large-scale, structural)
Key thinkers	Durkheim, Parsons, Merton

Functionalism as Consensus Theory

Functionalism sees society as a system of interdependent parts, each performing functions essential for the survival of the whole. Social order is maintained because individuals are socialised into accepting the dominant value system. Social institutions — the family, education, religion, the legal system — all work together to maintain stability and cohesion.

The organic analogy illustrates this view: just as the organs of the body work together to maintain health, so the institutions of society work together to maintain social order.

The Role of Socialisation

For consensus theorists, socialisation is the key mechanism of social control. Through primary socialisation (in the family) and secondary socialisation (in education, the media, religion, and peer groups), individuals internalise the norms and values of their society. Most people conform most of the time not because they are forced to, but because they genuinely accept the values they have been socialised into.

Strengths of Consensus Theories

• They provide a systematic, comprehensive framework for understanding how social institutions are interrelated.
• They explain how social order is possible — a fundamental sociological question.
• They draw attention to the functional significance of institutions that might otherwise be taken for granted.

Weaknesses of Consensus Theories

• They ignore conflict and inequality: not everyone shares the same values, and social order may be maintained through power and coercion rather than genuine consensus.
• They are conservative: by emphasising stability, they can be seen as legitimising the status quo and discouraging social change.
• They offer an oversocialised view of individuals, treating them as passive recipients of social norms rather than active agents.

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Conflict Theories

Core Assumptions

Conflict theories (primarily Marxism and feminism) start from the assumption that society is characterised by fundamental inequalities of power between different social groups. The key question for conflict theorists is: Who benefits from the existing social arrangements?

Feature	Conflict Theories
View of society	Divided by inequality and power
Basis of social order	Power, coercion, and ideology
Social institutions	Serve the interests of dominant groups
Social change	Driven by conflict between unequal groups
Individuals	Shaped by their structural position (class, gender)
Level of analysis	Macro (large-scale, structural)
Key thinkers	Marx, Gramsci, Althusser, Firestone, Walby, hooks

Marxism as Conflict Theory

Marxism identifies class conflict between the bourgeoisie (who own the means of production) and the proletariat (who sell their labour) as the fundamental dynamic of capitalist society. Social institutions (education, religion, the media, the legal system) function to maintain the power of the ruling class through ideology and false consciousness.

Feminism as Conflict Theory

Feminism identifies gender inequality as a central feature of society. Different strands of feminism (liberal, radical, Marxist, intersectional) offer different explanations for women's subordination, but all agree that society is structured in ways that systematically disadvantage women and benefit men.

Strengths of Conflict Theories

• They highlight inequality and injustice, drawing attention to the ways in which social institutions serve the interests of powerful groups.
• They provide critical, challenging perspectives that question taken-for-granted assumptions.
• They have inspired social movements and political action aimed at reducing inequality.

Weaknesses of Conflict Theories

• They can be reductionist: Marxism reduces everything to class; some forms of feminism reduce everything to gender.
• They tend to ignore areas of genuine consensus — not all social norms are imposed through coercion, and many people genuinely share fundamental values.
• They can be deterministic, portraying individuals as products of structural forces with little capacity for autonomous action.

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Social Action Theories

Core Assumptions

Social action theories (primarily symbolic interactionism, but also including phenomenology and ethnomethodology) start from the assumption that society is not a fixed, external structure but is continuously created and recreated through the meaningful interactions of individuals. The key question for social action theorists is: How do individuals make sense of their social world?