Sources and Origins of Papers, Boards, and Timbers

This lesson covers the sources and origins of papers, boards, and timbers, as required by AQA GCSE D&T (8552), Section 3.2.4. Understanding where materials come from — and the certification schemes that ensure responsible sourcing — is essential for making ethical and sustainable material choices.

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Sources of Timber

Timber comes from trees. There are two main categories:

Category	Description	Examples	Characteristics
Softwood	Comes from coniferous (cone-bearing, needle-leaved) trees; these are mostly evergreen	Pine, spruce, cedar, larch, Douglas fir	Generally faster-growing, cheaper, lighter, easier to work; used for construction, furniture, packaging
Hardwood	Comes from deciduous (broad-leaved) trees; these typically shed leaves in autumn	Oak, ash, beech, mahogany, teak, walnut, birch	Generally slower-growing, more expensive, denser, harder; used for furniture, flooring, decorative work

Important Note

The terms "softwood" and "hardwood" refer to the botanical classification of the tree, NOT the physical hardness of the timber. Balsa (a hardwood) is extremely soft and light, while yew (a softwood) is relatively hard and dense.

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Where Timber Grows

Timber Type	Primary Growing Regions	Growing Cycle
Softwoods	Northern hemisphere — Scandinavia, Canada, Russia, Scotland	25-60 years to maturity
Temperate hardwoods	Europe, North America, Japan	50-150+ years to maturity
Tropical hardwoods	Central/South America, West Africa, Southeast Asia	40-100+ years to maturity

The long growing cycles of hardwoods, especially tropical species, mean that forests cannot quickly recover from over-harvesting. This is why sustainable forestry management and certification schemes are so important.

AQA Exam Tip: You should know the difference between softwood and hardwood (botanical classification, not physical hardness), give examples of each, and explain why tropical hardwoods are of particular environmental concern (slow growth, deforestation, biodiversity loss).

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FSC and PEFC Certification

Two major international certification schemes ensure that timber comes from responsibly managed forests:

FSC (Forest Stewardship Council)

The FSC is an international non-profit organisation established in 1993. It sets standards for responsible forest management and certifies timber products that meet those standards.

Feature	Detail
Founded	1993
Headquarters	Bonn, Germany
Certification types	Forest Management (FM) and Chain of Custody (CoC)
Standards	Protects biodiversity, indigenous peoples' rights, workers' rights, and environmental values
Logo	Green tick-tree logo — look for it on timber and paper products

PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification)

The PEFC is the world's largest forest certification system, endorsing national certification schemes that meet its sustainability benchmarks.

Feature	Detail
Founded	1999
Headquarters	Geneva, Switzerland
Approach	Endorses existing national standards rather than creating its own
Coverage	~325 million hectares of certified forest worldwide
Logo	Two green trees in a circle

Why Certification Matters

Without Certification	With FSC/PEFC Certification
No guarantee of sustainable harvesting	Forests are managed to maintain biodiversity and long-term productivity
Possible illegal logging	Legal compliance is verified through independent audits
Risk of deforestation and habitat destruction	Harvested areas are replanted; environmental impact is minimised
No protection for indigenous communities	Rights of local and indigenous communities are respected
No traceability	Chain of custody ensures timber can be traced from forest to final product

AQA Exam Tip: If asked how a designer can ensure timber is sustainably sourced, mention FSC or PEFC certification by name. Simply saying "sustainably sourced timber" without naming the certification scheme is vague and may not earn full marks. The specification explicitly names FSC and PEFC.

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Sources of Paper and Board

Paper and board are made from wood pulp — tiny cellulose fibres extracted from timber (primarily softwood, particularly spruce and pine).

The Paper-Making Process (Simplified)

1. Logging — Trees are harvested (ideally from FSC/PEFC-certified forests or plantation timber).
2. Chipping — Logs are chipped into small pieces.
3. Pulping — Chips are broken down into fibres using mechanical or chemical processes.
4. Bleaching (optional) — Pulp is bleached white using chemicals (chlorine-free processes are more environmentally friendly).
5. Forming — Pulp is spread on a mesh, water is drained, and the sheet is pressed and dried.
6. Finishing — The paper is calendered (smoothed), coated, or cut to size.

Types of Paper and Board

Type	Description	Typical Use
Cartridge paper	Thick, textured, good for drawing and painting	Art and design work
Layout paper	Thin, semi-transparent, smooth	Design sketches and tracing
Corrugated card	Fluted layer sandwiched between two liners	Packaging boxes
Solid white board (SWB)	Smooth, white, printable on both sides	Book covers, premium packaging
Duplex board	White outer with grey inner (recycled)	Food packaging (cereal boxes)
Foam board	Polystyrene core between two paper faces	Architectural models, display boards
Kraft paper	Strong, brown, unbleached	Wrapping paper, bags, envelopes

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Recycled Paper and Board

Recycling paper is well-established in the UK:

Fact	Detail
UK paper recycling rate	Approximately 65-70%
Number of times paper can be recycled	5-7 times before fibres become too short
Energy saving vs virgin pulp	Approximately 70% less energy
Water saving vs virgin pulp	Approximately 50% less water

Limitations of Paper Recycling

• Fibres shorten with each recycling cycle, reducing paper quality.
• Contaminated paper (food-stained pizza boxes, waxed cartons) cannot be recycled.
• Some coatings and laminates (e.g. plastic-coated cups) make recycling difficult.
• Recycled paper typically has a greyer appearance and lower brightness than virgin paper.

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Manufactured Boards

Manufactured boards (also called engineered wood products) are made from timber waste, chips, fibres, or veneers bonded with adhesives. They are an efficient use of timber resources because they utilise wood that would otherwise be wasted.

Board	Made From	Advantages	Disadvantages	Common Use
MDF (Medium Density Fibreboard)	Fine wood fibres + resin, compressed under heat and pressure	Smooth surface, no grain, excellent for painting, consistent quality	Swells if wet, heavy, dust is hazardous (wear a mask), cannot be screwed near edges without pilot holes	Furniture, shelving, skirting boards
Plywood	Thin veneers glued with alternating grain direction	Very strong, resists warping, available in large sheets	More expensive than MDF/chipboard, edges need finishing	Structural use, boat building, furniture
Chipboard (particleboard)	Wood chips and shavings + resin, compressed	Very cheap, uses waste wood, consistent flatness	Weak, swells badly if wet, poor screw-holding	Flat-pack furniture, flooring underlay
Hardboard	Very fine wood fibres, compressed	Very thin and flexible, cheap, one smooth side	Only smooth on one side, weak structurally	Drawer bottoms, cabinet backs