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This lesson examines energy security as a geopolitical concept, the resource curse, petrostates, energy as a political weapon, conflict over energy resources, and energy poverty. It addresses the Edexcel A-Level Geography (9GE0) specification, Topic 6, Enquiry Question: "What role does energy play in the carbon cycle?" and "What are the consequences of increasing demand for energy?"
Energy security is the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price (IEA definition). It has multiple dimensions:
| Dimension | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Availability | Physical access to energy supplies | Does the country have domestic reserves or reliable imports? |
| Affordability | Energy is priced so that consumers and industry can access it | Are energy prices stable, or subject to volatile swings? |
| Reliability | Supply is consistent and uninterrupted | Are supply chains vulnerable to disruption (conflict, weather, politics)? |
| Sustainability | Energy supply does not cause unacceptable environmental damage | Is the energy mix compatible with climate targets? |
| Factor | Effect on Energy Security |
|---|---|
| Domestic reserves | Countries with large reserves (Saudi Arabia, USA, Russia) are more energy-secure |
| Import dependence | High import dependence = vulnerability (Japan imports ~90% of energy) |
| Diversity of supply | Diversified energy mix and supply routes reduce risk |
| Infrastructure | Reliable grid, pipelines, ports, and storage are essential |
| Geopolitical stability | Supply from conflict zones (Iraq, Libya) is unreliable |
| Investment | Sustained investment in extraction, refining, and distribution maintains supply |
| Technology | Innovation can unlock new resources (fracking) or alternatives (renewables) |
| Climate policy | Transition to renewables can enhance long-term security but may create short-term disruption |
Countries with abundant domestic energy resources often wield significant geopolitical influence:
| Country | Key Resources | Geopolitical Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Saudi Arabia | Oil (267 bn barrels proven reserves) | De facto OPEC leader; key US ally; swing producer — can increase/decrease production to influence prices |
| Russia | Oil (107 bn barrels), gas (48 tcm — world's largest) | Europe's former largest gas supplier; energy as geopolitical lever (see below) |
| USA | Oil, gas (shale revolution), coal | Became world's largest oil producer (2018) and net energy exporter (2019); reduced dependence on Middle East |
| Qatar | Gas (world's 3rd largest reserves); LNG leader | Tiny nation with outsized influence due to LNG exports; hosts US military base |
| Australia | Coal, LNG, uranium, solar potential | Major exporter to East Asia; tensions with China over coal imports (2020–23 ban) |
| Norway | Oil, gas (North Sea) | Government Pension Fund ($1.7 trillion) funded by oil revenues; model of resource management |
Countries lacking domestic energy resources face distinct challenges:
| Country | Energy Situation | Consequences |
|---|---|---|
| Japan | Imports ~90% of energy; no significant oil, gas or coal | Vulnerable to supply disruption; Fukushima led to increased fossil fuel imports and energy costs |
| South Korea | Imports ~92% of energy | Heavy nuclear reliance; strategic petroleum reserves; actively diversifying LNG suppliers |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | ~600 million people lack electricity access | Energy poverty limits economic development, healthcare, education; reliance on biomass (wood, dung) for cooking causes ~400,000 premature deaths/year from indoor air pollution |
| Bangladesh | Limited domestic gas; growing demand | Power cuts common; relies on imported LNG; vulnerable to price shocks |
Exam Tip: When comparing energy-rich and energy-poor nations, always link to development outcomes. Energy access correlates strongly with GDP per capita, life expectancy, literacy and HDI. Countries with energy poverty have lower development — this is a key geographical relationship.
The resource curse (also called the "paradox of plenty") describes the observation that countries with abundant natural resource wealth (especially oil and gas) often experience slower economic growth, higher inequality, weaker governance and more conflict than resource-poor countries.
| Mechanism | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Dutch Disease | Resource exports strengthen the national currency, making other exports (manufacturing, agriculture) uncompetitive | Nigeria — oil wealth devastated previously competitive agriculture and manufacturing sectors |
| Rent-seeking | Elites capture resource revenues for personal gain rather than public investment | Equatorial Guinea — GDP per capita $8,000 but 70% of population lives below poverty line |
| Weak institutions | Resource wealth reduces incentives to build effective taxation, governance and accountability systems | Angola — billions in oil revenues disappeared through corruption |
| Conflict | Control of resources motivates civil war and insurgency | Nigeria (Niger Delta militants), South Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo |
| Lack of diversification | Economy becomes dependent on a single commodity; vulnerable to price crashes | Venezuela — oil accounts for ~95% of export earnings; economic collapse when prices fell |
| Volatility | Resource revenues fluctuate with global commodity prices, destabilising budgets | Saudi Arabia — budget requires oil at ~80/barreltobalance;surplusat100, deficit at $60 |
Norway is the most frequently cited example of a resource-rich country that has avoided the resource curse:
| Strategy | Detail |
|---|---|
| Government Pension Fund Global | Established 1990; invests oil revenues globally; valued at ~$1.7 trillion (2024); saves wealth for future generations |
| Strict fiscal rules | Only ~3% of the fund's value can be spent annually — preventing excessive government spending |
| Democratic governance | Transparent, accountable institutions that prevent elite capture |
| Economic diversification | Norway has maintained competitive fishing, shipping, technology and service sectors alongside oil |
| Environmental commitment | Despite being a major oil exporter, Norway leads in EV adoption (~80% of new car sales are electric) |
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