Switched-On and Switched-Off Places

This lesson examines why some places are highly connected to global networks ("switched on") while others remain largely disconnected ("switched off"). It addresses the Edexcel Enquiry Question: "What are the consequences of globalisation for countries and different groups of people?" by focusing on the spatial unevenness of globalisation.

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The Concept of Connectivity

Not all places participate equally in globalisation. The degree to which a place is connected to global flows of trade, investment, people, information and culture is determined by a range of factors. Geographers describe highly connected places as "switched on" and poorly connected places as "switched off".

This concept draws on several theoretical frameworks:

Theory	Scholar	Key Idea
World Cities	Peter Hall (1966), Saskia Sassen (1991)	A network of "global cities" (London, New York, Tokyo) functions as the command and control centres of the global economy
Core-Periphery Model	Immanuel Wallerstein (1974)	The world economy is divided into a wealthy core, a dependent periphery and a semi-periphery — see also Lesson 9
Network Society	Manuel Castells (1996)	In the information age, power and wealth flow through networks; places not connected to these networks are marginalised
Space of Flows	Manuel Castells (1996)	Global economic activity takes place in a "space of flows" — electronic networks, transport corridors — rather than a "space of places"

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Factors Determining Global Connectivity

1. Governance and Political Stability

Countries with stable, democratic, transparent governance tend to be more globally connected because:

• They provide a predictable legal and regulatory environment that attracts FDI.
• They enforce property rights and contracts, reducing risk for investors and traders.
• They tend to adopt trade liberalisation policies, joining the WTO, signing trade agreements and creating open economies.

Conversely, countries with conflict, corruption, authoritarian governance or political instability tend to be "switched off" because investors and traders avoid high-risk environments.

2. Physical Geography and Location

Factor	Effect on Connectivity
Coastal location	Access to maritime trade routes — over 80% of global trade by volume is carried by sea
Landlocked location	Increased transport costs, dependence on neighbours for access to ports — 32 landlocked developing countries (LLDCs) face particular challenges
Island location	Can be either advantageous (Singapore — strategic location on shipping routes) or isolating (Pacific island states — remote, small markets)
Climate and terrain	Extreme environments (deserts, mountains, dense forests) can hinder infrastructure development
Natural resources	Resource-rich countries may be connected through commodity exports, but can also suffer the "resource curse"

3. History and Colonial Legacy

• Former colonial powers (UK, France, Spain, Portugal) established trade networks linking them to their colonies. These legacy connections persist — Anglophone countries tend to trade with the UK/USA; Francophone countries with France.
• Colonialism also created dependency relationships: many LICs were locked into exporting raw materials to colonial powers and importing manufactured goods — a pattern that still shapes trade today.
• The slave trade forcibly relocated millions of Africans, creating diaspora communities and shaping the cultural geography of the Americas.

4. Infrastructure

Modern infrastructure is essential for global connectivity:

Infrastructure	Importance
Ports	Container ports handle over 80% of global trade by volume. The world's busiest ports are in China (Shanghai, Ningbo, Shenzhen)
Airports	International airports enable tourism, business travel and air freight. London Heathrow, Dubai, Singapore Changi are major global hubs
Roads and railways	Internal connectivity links producers to ports and airports. China's Belt and Road Initiative is building infrastructure globally
Digital infrastructure	Fibre optic cables, 4G/5G networks, data centres enable digital connectivity. Africa has limited submarine cable landing points
Energy supply	Reliable electricity is essential for manufacturing and services. Many LICs face chronic energy shortages

5. Conflict and Instability

Conflict is one of the most powerful factors switching places "off" from global networks:

• Conflict destroys infrastructure, displaces populations, deters investment and disrupts trade.
• Countries affected by prolonged conflict (e.g. Syria, Yemen, Somalia, DRC, South Sudan) are among the world's least globalised.
• Even after conflict ends, the legacy can persist for decades — unexploded ordnance, trauma, institutional collapse and brain drain all inhibit recovery.

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Examples of Switched-On Places

Singapore

Singapore is one of the world's most "switched on" places and a model of how globalisation can be harnessed for development:

Indicator	Detail
Population	~5.9 million (2023)
GDP per capita	~$87,884 (PPP, 2023) — among the world's highest
KOF Globalisation Index	Consistently in top 5 globally
Trade	Trade-to-GDP ratio exceeds 300% — one of the world's most trade-dependent economies
Port	Singapore is the world's 2nd busiest container port (~37 million TEU, 2023)
Airport	Changi Airport handles 65+ million passengers per year; voted world's best airport repeatedly
FDI	Major recipient of FDI; headquarters for many TNCs' Asian operations
Financial centre	One of the world's top 3 financial centres (alongside London and New York)

Why Singapore is switched on: Strategic location on the Strait of Malacca (one of the world's busiest shipping lanes); stable, efficient governance; excellent infrastructure; educated, multilingual workforce; low taxes and business-friendly policies; historical role as a trading port (British colonial legacy).

Dubai (UAE)