Gender, Ethnicity and Inequality
This lesson examines how gender and ethnicity intersect with inequality at local, national and global scales. It addresses the Edexcel Enquiry Question: "What are human rights and how do they promote development?" by exploring how structural discrimination based on gender, ethnicity and other identity characteristics undermines human rights and development. The lesson covers gender inequality indices, specific harmful practices, LGBTQ+ rights, racial discrimination, indigenous peoples' rights and the concept of intersectionality.
Measuring Gender Inequality
Gender Inequality Index (GII)
The GII, published by the UNDP, measures gender-based disadvantage across three dimensions:
- Reproductive health: maternal mortality ratio and adolescent birth rate.
- Empowerment: share of parliamentary seats held by women and proportion of population with at least secondary education.
- Labour market: labour force participation rate.
The GII ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (maximum inequality).
| Country | GII Value (2023) | Context |
|---|
| Denmark | 0.013 | Among the most gender-equal countries |
| Sweden | 0.019 | Strong policies on parental leave, pay equity |
| UK | 0.056 | Relatively equal but persistent pay gap |
| China | 0.154 | Economic participation high, political representation low |
| India | 0.437 | Major gaps in education, labour participation, health |
| Yemen | 0.820 | One of the world's most unequal countries |
| Chad | 0.710 | Extremely high maternal mortality, low female education |
Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI)
Published annually by the World Economic Forum, the GGGI measures gender parity across four dimensions: economic participation, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment. In 2023, Iceland ranked first (for the 14th consecutive year), with a score of 0.912 (where 1.0 = parity). At the current rate of progress, global gender parity will take approximately 131 years to achieve.
Exam Tip: Both the GII and GGGI are useful measures to reference in exam answers. The GII is better for comparing disadvantage, while the GGGI focuses on the gap between men and women within each country. Knowing the difference demonstrates analytical precision.
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
FGM involves the partial or total removal of external female genitalia for non-medical reasons. It is internationally recognised as a violation of human rights and a form of gender-based violence.
Scale and Distribution
- Approximately 200 million girls and women alive today have undergone FGM, across 30 countries in Africa, the Middle East and Asia.
- FGM is most prevalent in: Somalia (98%), Guinea (95%), Djibouti (93%), Sierra Leone (83%) and Mali (82%).
- The practice is concentrated in a belt across West Africa, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Middle East, but also occurs in diaspora communities globally.
- FGM is typically performed on girls aged 4–14, often by traditional practitioners without anaesthesia or sterile equipment.
Health Consequences
Immediate: severe pain, haemorrhage, infection, urinary retention, shock, death. Long-term: chronic pain, recurrent infections, complications during childbirth (increased risk of caesarean section, postpartum haemorrhage, stillbirth), psychological trauma (PTSD, anxiety, depression).
The Debate
FGM is the most contentious area of the universalism vs cultural relativism debate:
- Universalist position: FGM violates the right to health, the right to bodily integrity and the right to be free from torture and cruel treatment. It is performed on children who cannot consent. It has no medical benefits and causes severe harm. It is a form of gender-based violence rooted in patriarchal control of female sexuality.
- Cultural relativist position: FGM is a deeply embedded cultural practice tied to identity, community belonging and social acceptance. Outsiders imposing their values on communities practising FGM may be engaging in cultural imperialism.
- Response: Many campaigners against FGM are themselves from communities that practise it — this is not simply a "Western vs non-Western" issue. Organisations such as Tostan (Senegal) have achieved significant reductions in FGM through community-led education and collective decision-making, rather than top-down prohibition.
Child Marriage
Child marriage (marriage before age 18) is a violation of human rights that disproportionately affects girls:
- Approximately 650 million girls and women alive today were married before age 18.
- Each year, approximately 12 million girls are married as children.
- The highest prevalence rates are in: Niger (76%), Central African Republic (68%), Chad (67%), Bangladesh (59%) and Mali (54%).
Consequences
Child marriage is both a cause and consequence of gender inequality:
- Education: Girls who marry young almost always drop out of school, limiting their economic opportunities for life.
- Health: Child brides face early pregnancy, which is a leading cause of death among 15–19 year-old girls in LICs. Girls under 15 are five times more likely to die in childbirth than women in their twenties.
- Violence: Child brides are more vulnerable to domestic violence and have less power within the household to negotiate.
- Poverty: Child marriage perpetuates intergenerational poverty — less-educated mothers have less-healthy, less-educated children.
LGBTQ+ Rights
The rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer+ people vary enormously across the world:
- Decriminalisation: Same-sex relations are legal in 132 countries but remain criminalised in 64 countries (2024). In 12 countries (including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Mauritania, parts of Nigeria and Somalia), same-sex relations carry the death penalty.
- Marriage equality: Same-sex marriage is legal in 36 countries (2024), including the UK (2014), USA (2015), Australia (2017), Taiwan (2019) and Chile (2022).
- Discrimination: Even where same-sex relations are legal, LGBTQ+ people often face discrimination in employment, housing, healthcare and education. In many countries, anti-LGBTQ+ rhetoric is used by politicians to mobilise support.
Recent Trends
The global picture is diverging — some countries are expanding LGBTQ+ rights while others are restricting them: