Borders and Migration Control
This lesson examines how states attempt to control migration through border infrastructure, immigration policies and deterrence strategies. It evaluates the effectiveness and ethics of border walls, maritime patrols, detention centres and visa regimes, and considers the human cost of migration control. This lesson addresses the Edexcel Enquiry Question: "What are the consequences of international migration?"
The Rise of Border Walls and Fences
The number of border walls and fences worldwide has increased dramatically since the end of the Cold War. In 1989, when the Berlin Wall fell, there were approximately 15 border walls globally. By 2023, there were over 70 — a paradox in an era of supposed globalisation.
The US-Mexico Border
The US-Mexico border stretches 3,145 kilometres and is the most heavily policed international boundary in the world.
- Border infrastructure: Over 1,100 km of barriers have been constructed, including steel bollard fencing, vehicle barriers and the partial wall built under the Trump administration. The Trump-era wall cost approximately $15 billion for approximately 730 km.
- Border Patrol: US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) employs over 60,000 agents. The border is monitored by surveillance towers, ground sensors, drones and cameras.
- Migration patterns: Despite massive investment in enforcement, apprehensions at the US southern border reached a record 2.4 million in 2023. Increased enforcement does not necessarily reduce migration — it redirects migrants to more dangerous routes and increases reliance on people smugglers.
- Human cost: The Missing Migrants Project documented over 900 migrant deaths along the US-Mexico border in 2022. Causes include dehydration in the Sonoran Desert, drowning in the Rio Grande, and hyperthermia.
Hungary's Border Fence
In 2015, Hungary built a 175 km razor-wire fence along its border with Serbia in response to the European refugee crisis. The fence was later extended to the Croatian border.
- The fence dramatically reduced irregular crossings through Hungary — from over 10,000 per day in September 2015 to near zero.
- Prime Minister Viktor Orbán framed the fence as a defence of European Christian civilisation against Muslim migration, making it a symbol of anti-immigration populism.
- The fence did not stop migration to Europe — it redirected flows to Croatia, Slovenia and the Western Balkans route.
- The EU Commission criticised Hungary for violating asylum law (refusing to process asylum claims), but Hungary argued it was defending its sovereign right to control its borders.
Ceuta and Melilla (Spain/Morocco)
Ceuta and Melilla are two Spanish enclaves on the North African coast, sharing land borders with Morocco. They are the only land borders between the EU and Africa.
- Both cities are surrounded by triple-layered fences up to 10 metres high, topped with razor wire, and equipped with CCTV, infrared cameras and motion sensors.
- Despite these barriers, migrants regularly attempt to scale the fences in large groups. In June 2022, at least 23 people died when approximately 2,000 migrants attempted to cross the Melilla fence. Moroccan and Spanish security forces used tear gas and rubber bullets.
- The enclaves illustrate the extreme measures states use to defend territorial sovereignty and control migration at the EU's external borders.
Fortress Europe: The Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea has become the world's deadliest migration route. Since 2014, the IOM has documented over 28,000 deaths of migrants attempting to cross the Mediterranean to reach Europe.
The Central Mediterranean Route
- Migrants depart from Libya and Tunisia, aiming for the Italian islands of Lampedusa and Sicily. The crossing is approximately 300 km and takes 2–3 days in overcrowded, unseaworthy boats.
- People smugglers charge 1,000–5,000 per person. They operate from lawless areas of Libya, where migrants are often subjected to exploitation, torture, sexual violence and forced labour before departure.
- In 2023, approximately 157,000 migrants arrived in Italy via the Central Mediterranean — the highest number since 2016.
EU Response
| Policy | Description | Effectiveness |
|---|
| Frontex (EU Border and Coast Guard) | Patrols external borders; surveillance; returns operations | Reduced crossings on some routes but criticised for pushbacks |
| EU-Turkey Deal (2016) | Turkey agreed to prevent irregular crossings to Greece; EU provided €6 billion | Reduced Aegean crossings from 856,000 (2015) to 42,000 (2016) but outsourced asylum obligations |
| EU-Libya cooperation | EU-funded Libyan Coast Guard intercepts boats and returns migrants to Libya | Criticised as returning migrants to detention centres where abuse is documented |
| Search and rescue | Italy's Mare Nostrum (2013–14) rescued 150,000+ migrants; replaced by smaller EU operations | Saving lives vs "pull factor" debate; NGO rescue ships criminalised by some governments |
| Relocation and resettlement | EU agreements to redistribute asylum seekers among member states | Largely failed; Eastern European states refused mandatory quotas |
Exam Tip: The Mediterranean migration crisis is a powerful case study for evaluating the effectiveness and ethics of migration control. In exam answers, always consider multiple perspectives: the state's right to control borders, the human rights of migrants, the legal obligations under international law (non-refoulement, right to seek asylum), and the effectiveness (or otherwise) of deterrence strategies.
People Smuggling and Human Trafficking
People Smuggling
People smuggling is the facilitation of illegal border crossing in exchange for payment. It is a transaction — the migrant pays the smuggler for a service (transport across a border). It is distinct from trafficking, though the two often overlap.
- People smuggling is one of the most profitable criminal activities globally, generating an estimated $6 billion per year (Europol estimate).
- Smuggling networks range from local opportunists (a fisherman with a boat) to sophisticated transnational organisations with logistics, communication networks and bribed officials.
- The relationship between enforcement and smuggling is paradoxical: tighter border controls increase the need for smugglers and drive up the price, making the journey more dangerous and more profitable for criminal networks.