Global Governance and International Organisations

This lesson examines the system of global governance — the institutions, laws and norms that attempt to manage international affairs in the absence of a world government. You will explore the UN system, international law, regional organisations and the effectiveness and limitations of global governance. This lesson addresses the Edexcel Enquiry Question: "What is the relationship between globalisation and sovereignty?"

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What Is Global Governance?

Global governance refers to the collective effort of states, international organisations, NGOs and other actors to address issues that cross national borders — conflict, trade, migration, climate change, health, human rights and more. It is governance without government: there is no world state with the authority to compel compliance.

The key tension in global governance is between sovereignty and collective action. States are reluctant to surrender autonomy, yet many of the world's most pressing problems — climate change, pandemics, terrorism, migration — cannot be solved by any single state. Global governance attempts to bridge this gap through institutions, treaties, norms and international law.

The Architecture of Global Governance

The global governance system has three main layers:

1. Universal institutions: The UN, WTO, IMF, World Bank, ICC — open to all states.
2. Regional organisations: EU, AU (African Union), ASEAN, NATO, MERCOSUR — groupings of states within a region.
3. International law and norms: Treaties, conventions, customary international law, and emerging norms like the Responsibility to Protect (R2P).

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The United Nations System

The United Nations was established in 1945 with the primary purpose of maintaining international peace and security. It has 193 member states and its headquarters is in New York.

Key UN Organs

Organ	Composition	Function
General Assembly	All 193 members; one vote each	Debates, resolutions (non-binding), budget approval
Security Council	5 permanent members (P5: USA, UK, France, Russia, China) + 10 elected	Primary responsibility for peace and security; can authorise sanctions and military force
Secretariat	Led by the Secretary-General (António Guterres since 2017)	Day-to-day administration; implements Security Council decisions
International Court of Justice (ICJ)	15 judges	Settles legal disputes between states; advisory opinions
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)	54 members	Coordinates economic and social work; oversees specialised agencies

The Security Council and the Veto

The UN Security Council is the most powerful body in the UN system. Its decisions are legally binding on all member states. However, it is fundamentally constrained by the veto power of its five permanent members. Any one of the P5 can block a resolution, regardless of how many other members support it.

Impact of the veto:

• Russia has used its veto to block resolutions on Syria (16 times between 2011 and 2023), preventing UN action on the civil war.
• The USA has used its veto repeatedly to block resolutions critical of Israel, including resolutions on settlements and military operations.
• China has used its veto to protect allies (e.g. Myanmar, Sudan) and to block actions it sees as interference in domestic affairs.
• Between 1946 and 2023, the veto was used approximately 300 times, with the USSR/Russia accounting for the most vetoes historically.

Exam Tip: The Security Council veto is a crucial example of the tension between sovereignty and global governance. The veto protects the sovereignty of the P5 but undermines the UN's ability to act on the world's worst crises. In essays, this is an excellent point for evaluation — the veto makes the UN system both stable (no superpower leaves) and ineffective (action is blocked when P5 interests are threatened).

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International Law

International law is the body of rules and principles that govern relations between states and, increasingly, between states and individuals.

Sources of International Law

1. Treaties and conventions: Formal agreements between states (e.g. Geneva Conventions, Paris Climate Agreement, UN Convention on the Law of the Sea). Treaties are binding only on states that ratify them.
2. Customary international law: Practices that are so widely followed that they are considered legally binding even without a treaty (e.g. diplomatic immunity, the prohibition of genocide, non-refoulement).
3. General principles of law: Principles common to the world's major legal systems (e.g. the principle of good faith).
4. Judicial decisions and scholarly writings: ICJ judgments and the works of legal scholars influence the development of international law.

The Geneva Conventions (1949)

The four Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols form the core of international humanitarian law (the laws of war). They protect:

• Wounded and sick soldiers on the battlefield (First Convention)
• Wounded, sick and shipwrecked military personnel at sea (Second Convention)
• Prisoners of war (Third Convention)
• Civilians in time of war (Fourth Convention)

The Geneva Conventions have been ratified by all 196 states — one of the very few universally ratified treaties. However, compliance is often poor. Violations in conflicts in Syria, Yemen, Ukraine and Gaza have been extensively documented.

The International Criminal Court (ICC)

The ICC, established by the Rome Statute (1998) and operational since 2002, is a permanent international court that prosecutes individuals for:

• Genocide
• Crimes against humanity
• War crimes
• Crimes of aggression

Key facts:

• 124 states are parties to the Rome Statute.
• The USA, Russia, China and India are NOT members, severely limiting the ICC's reach.
• The ICC has completed relatively few cases since its establishment, leading to criticism of its effectiveness.
• The ICC has been accused of disproportionately targeting African leaders — all of its first investigations were in African countries.
• In 2023, the ICC issued an arrest warrant for Russian President Vladimir Putin for the war crime of deporting Ukrainian children to Russia.

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Regional Organisations

The European Union (EU)

The most integrated regional organisation, with 27 member states (after Brexit). The EU is covered in detail in the next lesson.

The African Union (AU)