Energy Challenges and Sustainability

The world faces an unprecedented energy challenge: how to provide reliable, affordable energy to a growing global population of 8 billion people while simultaneously reducing greenhouse gas emissions to avoid catastrophic climate change. This lesson examines the key debates around fossil fuels, nuclear power and renewables, and evaluates the prospects for a sustainable energy transition. As a Paper 3 topic, you may be asked to make and justify decisions about energy futures — so understanding both sides of every argument is essential.

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The Fossil Fuel Problem

Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) provide over 80% of global energy, but their use is the primary cause of climate change. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, raising global temperatures.

The Scale of the Problem

• Global CO₂ emissions from energy were approximately 37.4 billion tonnes in 2023 — the highest level ever recorded
• Atmospheric CO₂ concentration has risen from 280 parts per million (ppm) before the Industrial Revolution to over 424 ppm in 2024
• Global temperatures have already risen by approximately 1.2°C above pre-industrial levels
• To limit warming to 1.5°C (the Paris Agreement target), global emissions need to fall by approximately 45% by 2030 and reach net zero by 2050 — an enormous challenge given current reliance on fossil fuels

Fossil Fuel	CO₂ Emissions (kg per kWh of electricity)	Share of Global Energy	Trend
Coal	~0.9–1.0	27%	Declining in HICs; still rising in some NEEs
Oil	~0.7–0.8	31%	Dominant in transport; slowly declining share
Natural gas	~0.4–0.5	24%	Growing; seen as "transition fuel"
Solar PV	~0.04 (lifecycle)	4%	Fastest-growing; costs fell 90% since 2010
Wind	~0.01 (lifecycle)	3%	Rapid growth; costs competitive with fossil fuels
Nuclear	~0.01 (lifecycle)	4%	Stable; some countries expanding, others phasing out

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The Fracking Debate

Fracking (hydraulic fracturing) is a technique for extracting oil and gas from shale rock formations deep underground. It involves injecting a high-pressure mixture of water, sand and chemicals into the rock to create fractures through which oil or gas can flow.

The US Shale Revolution

Fracking has transformed the USA's energy position:

• US oil production increased from approximately 5 million barrels/day in 2008 to over 13 million barrels/day in 2023, making the USA the world's largest oil producer
• US natural gas production doubled between 2005 and 2023
• This has improved US energy security, reduced energy prices, created hundreds of thousands of jobs and reduced dependence on Middle Eastern oil imports

Arguments For and Against Fracking

Arguments For	Arguments Against
Reduces dependence on imported energy; improves energy security	Risk of groundwater contamination from fracking chemicals and methane migration
Natural gas produces ~50% less CO₂ than coal, helping to reduce emissions in the short term	Methane leakage from fracking wells and pipelines — methane is 80x more potent than CO₂ as a greenhouse gas over 20 years
Creates jobs and economic growth in rural areas	Can trigger small earthquakes (induced seismicity) — the UK experienced a magnitude 2.9 earthquake near the Cuadrilla fracking site in Lancashire in 2019
Gas provides reliable baseload power to complement intermittent renewables	Industrialises rural landscapes: truck traffic, noise, air pollution, flaring
Extends the availability of fossil fuels, providing time for the renewable transition	Delays the transition to renewables by making fossil fuels artificially cheap
Recovers fuel that would otherwise be inaccessible	UK banned fracking in 2019 (following the Lancashire earthquake); some US states have also banned or restricted it

Exam Tip: Fracking is a contentious topic that works well for Paper 3 evaluation questions. Be prepared to argue both sides and reach a balanced conclusion. Consider who the stakeholders are (energy companies, local residents, government, environmentalists) and what their priorities are.

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The Nuclear Debate

Nuclear power generates approximately 10% of global electricity with very low carbon emissions during operation, but it remains deeply controversial.

Major Nuclear Incidents

Incident	Year	Location	What Happened	Impact
Chernobyl	1986	Ukraine (then USSR)	Reactor explosion during a safety test; fire burned for 10 days	31 immediate deaths; estimated 4,000–60,000 long-term cancer deaths; 350,000 people evacuated; 30 km exclusion zone still in place today
Fukushima Daiichi	2011	Japan	Magnitude 9.0 earthquake and tsunami caused cooling system failure; three reactors melted down	No immediate radiation deaths; ~150,000 evacuated; ongoing decontamination costing over $200 billion; Japan shut down all 54 reactors (some have since restarted)

Arguments For and Against Nuclear Power

Arguments For	Arguments Against
Very low carbon emissions during operation	Radioactive waste remains dangerous for 10,000+ years; no permanent disposal solution exists in most countries
Extremely high energy density — a small amount of fuel produces huge amounts of energy	Risk of catastrophic accidents (Chernobyl, Fukushima) — low probability but extreme consequences
Reliable baseload power — operates 24/7 regardless of weather	Very high construction costs — new plants often face massive budget overruns (e.g. Hinkley Point C in the UK: originally budgeted at £18 billion, now estimated at £35+ billion)
Small land footprint compared to solar or wind farms	Long construction times (10–15+ years from planning to operation)
New designs (Small Modular Reactors, SMRs) may reduce costs and risks	Uranium mining damages environments and indigenous communities
Provides energy security — reduces dependence on imported fossil fuels	Public opposition is strong in many countries — Germany completed its nuclear phase-out in April 2023

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The Renewable Energy Transition

The transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy is underway, but it faces significant challenges.

Progress So Far