Plots Against Elizabeth
Between 1571 and 1586, three major Catholic conspiracies aimed to remove Elizabeth and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots. Each plot combined English Catholic recusants, foreign powers, and assassination planning. Each plot was uncovered. Together they transformed Elizabeth's approach to Catholics and to Mary herself.
This lesson explains the three plots in turn, shows how Walsingham's intelligence network worked, and draws out the pattern that made each plot fail.
Walsingham's espionage network
Before looking at individual plots, you need to understand the system that caught them. Sir Francis Walsingham — Principal Secretary from 1573 — built what was, in effect, England's first state intelligence service.
Key features:
| Technique | Description |
|---|
| Foreign agents | Walsingham had informants in Paris, Rome, Madrid and the Netherlands. |
| Letter interception | Correspondence with Mary was routed through known channels so it could be opened and copied. |
| Cipher-breaking | Thomas Phelippes was Walsingham's master cryptographer, breaking Mary's coded letters. |
| Double agents | Gilbert Gifford, Robert Poley and others posed as Catholic sympathisers to infiltrate plots. |
| Torture | Priests and plotters were questioned at the Tower; Campion's capture led to extensive interrogation. |
Walsingham's method was not just to detect plots but to encourage them to mature — so that Mary and her supporters produced enough written evidence to be convicted.
The Ridolfi Plot, 1571
The conspirators
- Roberto Ridolfi — Florentine banker and papal agent, based in London
- The Duke of Norfolk — England's senior Catholic peer
- Mary Queen of Scots — to marry Norfolk and replace Elizabeth
- Philip II of Spain — would provide troops
- Pope Pius V — blessed the plot; his 1570 Bull had already declared Elizabeth deposed
- The Duke of Alba — Spanish commander in the Netherlands, intended invasion leader
The plan
- English Catholics rise in rebellion.
- Alba lands a Spanish army from the Netherlands.
- Elizabeth is assassinated or deposed.
- Norfolk marries Mary; she becomes queen; Catholicism is restored.
How it was uncovered
- Cecil's agents intercepted Ridolfi's communications.
- A courier, Charles Baillie, was arrested in Dover carrying coded letters.
- Ciphered papers linked Norfolk directly to the plot.
- Ridolfi himself was safely abroad and escaped.
Consequences
- Norfolk executed, June 1572 — the only English peer executed in the reign.
- Mary's role was clearly implicated but Elizabeth refused to proceed against her.
- Parliament demanded harsher anti-Catholic laws.
- The Treasons Act 1571 made denying royal supremacy treason.
The Throckmorton Plot, 1583
The conspirators
- Francis Throckmorton — young English Catholic gentleman, courier for Mary's supporters
- Henry Howard and Bernardino de Mendoza — the Spanish ambassador in London, the key foreign link
- The Duke of Guise — French Catholic leader, planned to lead an invasion from France
- Mary Queen of Scots
The plan
- French Catholic troops, led by the Duke of Guise, would invade England.
- English Catholics would rise.
- Elizabeth would be killed; Mary would take the throne.
How it was uncovered
Walsingham's agents watched Throckmorton's movements for months. When he was arrested in November 1583, incriminating papers were found at his house — including a list of English Catholic sympathisers and a map of possible invasion sites.
Throckmorton confessed under torture. He was executed in July 1584.
Consequences
- Mendoza was expelled from England in January 1584 — the only Spanish ambassador ever expelled.
- The Bond of Association (1584) committed its signatories to kill anyone who benefited from an assassination attempt on Elizabeth — a direct warning to Mary's supporters.
- The Act for the Queen's Safety (1585) allowed trial and execution of anyone on whose behalf a plot against Elizabeth was made — this was the legal basis on which Mary would later be tried.
The Babington Plot, 1586
This was the most important plot because it produced the written evidence that finally condemned Mary Queen of Scots.
The conspirators
- Anthony Babington — young Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire
- John Ballard — Catholic priest who planned the assassination
- Mary Queen of Scots — agreed in writing to the plan
- Philip II of Spain — backed a planned invasion
The plan
- Six men would assassinate Elizabeth.
- English Catholics would rise.
- Spanish troops would invade.
- Mary would take the throne.
How Walsingham trapped Mary