Writing: Punctuation and Grammar

This lesson covers DfE content statements L2.20 and L2.21 — using correct grammar including subject-verb agreement and consistent tense, and using punctuation correctly, including full stops, commas, apostrophes, quotation marks, colons, and semicolons.

Punctuation and grammar together make up the other half of the SPaG marks. Getting these right is not about following complicated rules — it is about making your writing clear, professional, and easy to read.

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Full Stops and Capital Letters

These are the most basic punctuation marks, but errors with them are surprisingly common under exam pressure.

Full stops go at the end of every sentence. If you are unsure whether something is a sentence, check: does it have a subject and a main verb? Does it express a complete thought? If yes, it ends with a full stop.

Capital letters are used for:

Use	Example
The start of a sentence	The report was submitted on time.
Proper nouns (names of people, places, organisations)	Sarah, London, NHS, City & Guilds
Days of the week and months	Monday, January
Titles	Mr, Mrs, Dr, Professor
The word "I"	I am writing to confirm...
Acronyms and abbreviations	UK, GCSE, HR

Common mistakes:

• Using capital letters for emphasis instead of bold or italics (this is NOT acceptable → this is not acceptable)
• Forgetting capitals after full stops
• Not capitalising proper nouns ("i went to london" should be "I went to London")

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Commas

Commas are the most misused punctuation mark. Here are the rules you need:

Rule 1: Commas in Lists

Use commas to separate items in a list:

• The office needs new desks, chairs, monitors, and keyboards.
• The report covers staffing, budgets, and health and safety.

Rule 2: Commas After Fronted Adverbials

When a sentence begins with a word or phrase that tells you when, where, or how something happened, put a comma after it:

• Unfortunately, the meeting has been cancelled.
• On Monday, the new system will go live.
• Despite the delays, the project was completed on budget.
• After careful consideration, we have decided to accept the proposal.

Rule 3: Commas to Separate Clauses

When a complex sentence starts with the subordinate clause, use a comma before the main clause:

• Although the cost is high, the benefits are clear.
• If you have any questions, please contact HR.

When the main clause comes first, a comma is usually not needed:

• The benefits are clear although the cost is high.
• Please contact HR if you have any questions.

Rule 4: Commas Around Extra Information

Use a pair of commas to enclose information that could be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence:

• The manager, who has been with the company for ten years, announced her retirement.
• The new policy, introduced in January, has been well received.

Rule 5: Commas Before Conjunctions in Compound Sentences

Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, or, yet) when it joins two main clauses:

• The report was thorough, and the recommendations were practical.
• Sales increased in the north, but declined in the south.

When NOT to Use a Comma

• Not between a subject and its verb: The manager of the Leeds office, has resigned. → The manager of the Leeds office has resigned.
• Not to join two main clauses without a conjunction (this is a comma splice): The meeting was cancelled, everyone went home. → The meeting was cancelled, so everyone went home.

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Apostrophes

Apostrophes have exactly two uses. Confusion between them is one of the most common errors.

Use 1: Omission (Contractions)

An apostrophe shows where letters have been left out:

Full Form	Contraction
do not	don't
I am	I'm
they are	they're
it is / it has	it's
we have	we've
should not	shouldn't

Important: In formal writing (letters, reports), avoid contractions. Write "do not" rather than "don't."

Use 2: Possession (Belonging)

An apostrophe shows that something belongs to someone or something:

Owner	What They Own	Possessive Form
the manager	the manager's office	Singular: add 's
the employee	the employee's records	Singular: add 's
the employees (plural)	the employees' records	Plural ending in s: add ' after the s
the children	the children's area	Plural NOT ending in s: add 's
James	James's report OR James' report	Both accepted for names ending in s

When NOT to Use an Apostrophe

• Plurals: The report's are ready. → The reports are ready.
• Its (possessive): The company changed it's policy. → The company changed its policy.
• Years/decades: the 1990s (not the 1990's)

Exam Tip: If you are unsure whether to use an apostrophe, ask yourself: "Does this word show ownership, or is it a contraction?" If the answer is neither, you probably do not need one. The most common mistake is putting apostrophes in ordinary plurals — avoid this at all costs.

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Colons

A colon introduces something — a list, an explanation, or an expansion of the point before it.

Use 1: Introducing a List

The company offers three benefits: private healthcare, a pension scheme, and flexible working.

Rule: The words before the colon must form a complete sentence.

Use 2: Introducing an Explanation or Expansion

The outcome was inevitable: the company had been losing money for years.

The part after the colon explains or expands on the part before it.

Use 3: Before a Quotation

The manager was direct: "This level of service is unacceptable."

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Semicolons

A semicolon joins two closely related main clauses that could stand as separate sentences:

The first quarter was strong; the second quarter was disappointing.

Rules:

• Both parts must be complete sentences (main clauses)
• The two parts must be closely related in meaning
• Do not use a conjunction after a semicolon (no "and" or "but")

When to use semicolons vs full stops: Use a semicolon when the two ideas are so closely connected that a full stop would feel like too strong a break.

Semicolons in Lists

Use semicolons to separate items in a complex list (where the items contain commas):

The committee includes: Sarah Chen, Head of HR; David Obi, Finance Director; and Maria Torres, Operations Manager.

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Quotation Marks (Inverted Commas)

Use quotation marks when quoting someone's exact words:

The spokesperson said: "We are committed to improving safety standards."