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Understanding how resources are distributed around the world is the foundation of the entire Resource Management topic. Food, water and energy are the three most important resources for human survival, yet they are unevenly distributed across the planet. This lesson explores why that distribution is unequal, which areas face the greatest shortages, and how physical and human factors interact to shape resource availability.
A resource is anything that is useful to people. In geography, when we talk about "resource management," we focus on three essentials:
| Resource | Why It Matters | Key Fact |
|---|---|---|
| Food | Essential for nutrition, health, and economic development | Around 800 million people worldwide are undernourished |
| Water | Needed for drinking, sanitation, agriculture, and industry | Only 2.5% of the world's water is freshwater |
| Energy | Powers homes, transport, industry, and agriculture | Over 750 million people lack access to electricity |
These three resources are deeply interconnected. For example, you need water to grow food, and you need energy to pump and treat water. This interconnection is sometimes called the food-water-energy nexus.
graph TD
A[Food] <--> B[Water]
B <--> C[Energy]
C <--> A
A --> A1[Irrigation needs water]
B --> B1[Treatment needs energy]
C --> C1[Biofuels need food crops]
Food production is concentrated in certain parts of the world. Some regions produce far more food than they need, while others cannot grow enough to feed their populations.
| Factor | Impact |
|---|---|
| Climate | Warm temperatures, reliable rainfall, and long growing seasons increase food production |
| Relief | Flat, low-lying land is easier to farm than steep mountain slopes |
| Soil quality | Rich, fertile soils (e.g. volcanic soils, alluvial floodplain soils) support higher yields |
| Water availability | Regions with reliable freshwater sources can irrigate crops year-round |
| Factor | Impact |
|---|---|
| Technology | Mechanised farming, GM crops, and irrigation systems increase production |
| Investment | Wealthy countries invest more in agriculture and food infrastructure |
| Conflict | Wars disrupt farming, destroy infrastructure, and displace farmers |
| Trade policies | Subsidies in rich countries can make it harder for poor countries to compete |
| Land ownership | In some countries, large corporations own land while small farmers are marginalised |
Exam Tip: When explaining unequal food distribution, always link physical and human factors together. A strong answer might say: "Although Sub-Saharan Africa has areas of fertile soil, food production is limited by lack of investment in irrigation technology and ongoing political instability."
Water is essential for life, yet its distribution is highly unequal. Some regions receive far more rainfall than they need, while others are chronically dry.
| Factor | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Climate | Equatorial regions receive heavy rainfall; arid regions (Sahara, Arabian Peninsula) receive very little |
| Geology | Permeable rocks (e.g. chalk, limestone) store groundwater in aquifers; impermeable rocks cause surface runoff |
| Pollution | Industrial and agricultural pollution contaminates freshwater supplies |
| Over-abstraction | Pumping water from rivers and aquifers faster than it is replenished |
| Population growth | Rising demand from growing populations and urbanisation |
| Infrastructure | Pipes, treatment plants, and dams affect a country's ability to deliver clean water |
Exam Tip: Remember the difference between water stress (demand is high relative to supply) and water scarcity (there is not enough water to meet basic needs). The exam may test your understanding of both terms.
Energy consumption and production are highly unequal across the world. Wealthy, industrialised nations consume far more energy per person than developing countries.
| Region | Energy Use Per Capita | Key Detail |
|---|---|---|
| North America | Very high | USA uses about 300 million BTUs per person per year |
| Europe | High | Varies widely — Norway very high, Eastern Europe lower |
| Middle East | High | Oil-rich nations like Qatar and UAE have very high per capita use |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | Very low | Many countries average less than 10 million BTUs per person |
| South Asia | Low | India's per capita use is rising rapidly with industrialisation |
| Type | Examples | Renewable? |
|---|---|---|
| Fossil fuels | Coal, oil, natural gas | No — finite resources that will eventually run out |
| Nuclear | Uranium | No — but low carbon and long-lasting fuel supply |
| Renewable | Solar, wind, hydroelectric, tidal, geothermal, biomass | Yes — naturally replenished |
There is a clear link between wealth and resource consumption. High-income countries (HICs) consume far more food, water, and energy per person than low-income countries (LICs).
| Measure | HICs | LICs |
|---|---|---|
| Calories consumed per day | 3,400+ | Under 2,000 |
| Water use per person per day | 300–500 litres | 10–20 litres |
| Energy use per person | 100–300 million BTUs | Under 20 million BTUs |
This consumption gap is driven by:
graph LR
A[Extraction] --> B[Processing]
B --> C[Distribution]
C --> D[Consumption]
D --> E[Waste and Recycling]
E --> B
Exam Tip: If asked about the "global challenge" of resource management, emphasise the tension between rising demand (from population growth and economic development) and finite supply (especially of fossil fuels and freshwater). This framing will earn you marks for understanding the bigger picture.
The world's population is growing — it passed 8 billion in 2022 — and demand for all three resources is increasing.
The central challenge of resource management is: How do we meet the growing demands of a rising global population without destroying the environment?
This question underpins every topic in this course — from food security to energy sustainability.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Resource | Anything that is useful to people and can be extracted from the environment |
| Renewable resource | A resource that is naturally replenished (e.g. solar energy, timber) |
| Non-renewable resource | A resource that exists in finite quantities and will eventually run out (e.g. oil, coal) |
| Food security | When all people, at all times, have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food |
| Water stress | When demand for water is high relative to the available supply |
| Water scarcity | When there is not enough water to meet basic needs |
| Energy mix | The combination of different energy sources used by a country |
| Food-water-energy nexus | The interconnection between food, water, and energy systems |
Resources are unevenly distributed across the world due to a combination of physical factors (climate, geology, relief) and human factors (technology, investment, conflict, trade). HICs consume far more resources per person than LICs, creating a significant consumption gap. As the global population grows and countries develop economically, demand for food, water, and energy is rising — making sustainable resource management one of the most important challenges of the 21st century.
AQA expects you to be able to describe the UK resource situation for food, water and energy, and to study one global food, water or energy insecurity case study in detail. This case study section summarises the key facts you need.
UK food. The UK imports around 46% of its food. Food miles are rising — New Zealand lamb travels 18,800 km, Kenyan green beans 6,800 km, Peruvian avocados over 10,000 km — expanding the carbon footprint of the UK's food system. Agribusiness dominates cereal, dairy and poultry production. Demand for organic, local and seasonal produce is rising. UK self-sufficiency has fallen from 75% in the 1980s to around 54% today. The UK is a food-surplus country in some sectors (e.g. lamb, dairy) but deeply deficit in others (e.g. fruit, vegetables).
UK water. Rainfall is geographically mismatched with population. The north and west (Scotland, Wales, Lake District, Pennines) often exceed 2,000 mm/year — a surplus. The south-east (London, East Anglia) receives under 700 mm/year but houses most of the 67-million-strong population — a deficit. The Kielder Water transfer scheme in Northumberland, the UK's largest artificial reservoir, holds around 200 billion litres and can release flows down the Tyne, Wear and Tees. Around 3 billion litres per day are lost through leakage in England and Wales. Pollution from agricultural runoff, untreated sewage and industrial effluent still affects UK rivers.
UK energy. Coal's share of UK electricity fell from around 80% in the 1980s to 1% in 2023, and the last coal station closed in 2024. North Sea oil and gas peaked in 1999, and the UK has since become a net energy importer. Natural gas supplies around 32% of electricity, offshore wind around 29%, nuclear around 15%, biomass around 5% and solar around 4%. Hinkley Point C is under construction at over £30 billion. Fracking for shale gas was suspended in 2019 after seismic tremors at Preston New Road, Lancashire.
Global insecurity case study: the Three Gorges Dam, China. The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River, completed in 2006, is the world's largest hydroelectric project at 22,500 MW, generating around 100 TWh per year — equivalent to burning 50 million tonnes of coal. It was built to control devastating Yangtze flooding, generate clean electricity, improve river navigation and provide water supply. However, 1.3 million people were displaced; ecosystems were damaged (the baiji dolphin is functionally extinct); sediment trapping has reduced downstream fertility and caused coastal erosion at the Yangtze delta; and reservoir-induced landslides have occurred. It is a powerful case study for questions about large-scale water and energy management.
A common misconception is that unequal resource distribution is caused only by climate and geography. Students often see LICs as "unlucky" and HICs as "lucky" in terms of resource endowment. In reality, human factors — colonial histories, trade rules, investment flows, conflict and governance — often matter at least as much as physical geography. Many resource-rich LICs (e.g. the Democratic Republic of Congo, with vast mineral wealth) face food, water and energy insecurity because of political, economic and institutional constraints, not physical shortage. A strong exam answer always links physical and human factors rather than focusing on one alone.
Question (9 marks): Evaluate the factors that cause the uneven global distribution of resources. Use examples.
Grade 3-4 answer. Resources are unevenly distributed because of the weather and where rocks are. HICs like the UK have lots of resources and LICs like Sub-Saharan Africa have fewer. Rich countries have more technology too. So there is a gap between rich and poor countries. (Commentary: simple points, few specific examples, very limited evaluation.)
Grade 5-6 answer. Resources are unevenly distributed because of physical and human factors. Physical factors include climate (wet equatorial regions have plenty of food and water, arid regions have little), geology (oil is concentrated in the Middle East, coal in China and the USA) and relief (flat land is easier to farm). Human factors include technology (HICs can exploit difficult resources like fracking), investment (HICs have more money for infrastructure), conflict (wars destroy agriculture and energy supply) and trade rules (subsidies in HICs disadvantage LIC farmers). For example, the UK imports 46% of its food, while many Sub-Saharan African countries face chronic food insecurity despite fertile areas. Both types of factors matter, but human factors can often be changed by policy. (Commentary: developed points, balanced factors, specific examples, clear judgement.)
Grade 7-9 answer. The uneven global distribution of resources is caused by a complex interaction of physical and human factors, with human factors often being decisive in shaping outcomes. Physical factors include climate (equatorial rainfall vs arid subtropical regions at 20–30° N and S), geology (fossil fuel reserves concentrated in Middle Eastern sedimentary basins, Russian Siberia and the USA), relief (flat alluvial plains are easier to farm than mountain slopes) and soil quality (fertile volcanic and alluvial soils vs degraded or salinised land). These create the baseline distribution of resources. However, human factors often determine whether physical resources translate into actual supply. Technology allows HICs to exploit difficult resources through fracking, deep-sea drilling and desalination, while LICs lack capital for similar investment. Political instability disrupts supply (e.g. conflict zones in Yemen and South Sudan face food insecurity). Trade rules often disadvantage LIC farmers — EU Common Agricultural Policy subsidies, for example, undercut West African cotton producers. Colonial histories shaped global commodity chains that still concentrate processing and profit in HICs. Even within the UK, geographical distribution creates imbalance — the north-west has surplus water but the south-east has deficit. Overall, physical factors establish the starting point, but human factors determine how resources flow and who benefits. This is why resource inequality cannot be solved by technology alone — it also requires political, economic and institutional reform. (Commentary: sophisticated evaluation linking multiple factor types with specific examples, nuanced conclusion.)
This content is aligned with the AQA GCSE Geography (8035) specification, Paper 2: Challenges in the human environment — The challenge of resource management. For the most accurate and up-to-date information, please refer to the official AQA specification document.