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No cryptographic system exists in isolation. Even mathematically strong algorithms can be vulnerable to implementation flaws, side-channel leakage, protocol weaknesses, and human error. Understanding how cryptographic systems are attacked is essential for building secure implementations.
| Category | Target | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Brute force | The key space | Exhaustive key search |
| Mathematical | The algorithm itself | Factorisation, discrete log |
| Side channel | Physical implementation | Timing, power analysis, cache |
| Implementation | Software bugs | Padding oracle, nonce reuse |
| Protocol | The way crypto is used | Downgrade, replay, MITM |
| Social / operational | Key management and people | Stolen keys, weak passwords |
A brute force attack tries every possible key until the correct one is found:
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