Scaling Up: Synthesis and Exam Skills

You have now studied the whole of Topic B2 — from a single cell dividing by mitosis, through specialised cells and stem cells, to the transport systems that supply a whole organism. This final lesson pulls B2 together around its big organising idea, recaps the calculations you must be able to do, summarises the required practicals, gathers the misconceptions that span the topic, and works through a synoptic six-mark answer. Think of it as your exam-readiness lesson for Scaling up in your OCR Gateway Combined Science course.

By the end of this lesson you should be able to explain how the parts of B2 connect through the surface-area-to-volume idea, carry out the key B2 calculations, recall the required practicals with their variables, and answer a synoptic question well.

This synthesis lesson draws on all three Assessment Objectives together: AO1 (recalling the B2 facts and definitions), AO2 (applying them in the SA:V, percentage-change-in-mass and cardiac-output calculations) and AO3 (analysing the required-practical methods and interpreting the data they produce).

The Big Idea: Scaling Up Creates a Surface-Area Problem

Everything in B2 hangs off one central idea. As organisms scale up from a single cell to a large multicellular body, their surface area to volume ratio falls — the volume that needs supplying grows faster than the surface available to supply it. Diffusion alone, which works beautifully for a tiny cell, becomes far too slow for a large organism whose cells are deep inside. The whole topic is the story of how life solves this problem.

flowchart TD
  A["Organisms scale up<br/>(one cell to many)"] --> B["Surface area to volume<br/>ratio falls"]
  B --> C["Diffusion alone is too slow<br/>to supply all cells"]
  C --> D["Specialised exchange surfaces<br/>(alveoli, villi, roots)"]
  C --> E["Transport systems<br/>(circulatory system; xylem & phloem)"]
  D --> F["Every cell is supplied<br/>with what it needs"]
  E --> F

Here is how each lesson of B2 fits into that story:

Part of B2	How it fits the "scaling up" idea
Mitosis & the cell cycle	How one cell becomes the many cells of a large body (growth)
Differentiation & stem cells	Those many cells become specialised, including the cells of exchange surfaces and transport systems; stem cells are their source
Diffusion & SA:V	Why scaling up is a problem — the falling SA:V and slow diffusion
Osmosis & active transport	How substances cross membranes at exchange surfaces and into cells
Circulatory system	The animal transport system linking exchange surfaces to cells
Transport in plants	The plant transport system (xylem and phloem) doing the same job

Seeing this shape is genuinely useful in the exam: a question about alveoli, villi, root hair cells, capillaries or the leaf is, underneath, always a question about getting substances across a large, thin, well-supplied surface quickly — the answer to the surface-area problem.

Exam Tip: If a six-mark question asks "why" a large organism needs a particular feature (an exchange surface, a transport system, a thin capillary wall), bring it back to the surface area to volume ratio and diffusion distance. Examiners reward answers that show you understand the underlying idea, not just the named structure.

Levels of Organisation

A useful idea that runs right through B2 is that specialised cells are organised into a hierarchy of increasing size and complexity. This is how the many cells produced by mitosis are arranged into a working body.

flowchart LR
  A["Cell<br/>(e.g. muscle cell)"] --> B["Tissue<br/>(group of similar cells)"]
  B --> C["Organ<br/>(several tissues together)"]
  C --> D["Organ system<br/>(organs with a shared job)"]
  D --> E["Organism<br/>(the whole living thing)"]

A tissue is a group of similar cells that work together — for example muscle tissue, which contracts.
An organ is made of several different tissues working together — for example the heart, which contains muscle tissue and valve tissue.
An organ system is a group of organs that work together — for example the circulatory system (heart and blood vessels).
Together the organ systems make up the whole organism.

Exam Tip: Learn the order cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism, and be ready to place an example: the heart is an organ (several tissues), while the circulatory system is an organ system (several organs).

Recap of the B2 Calculations

A few calculations recur across B2. Make sure each is secure.

1. Surface area to volume ratio (cubes)

Formulae: surface area $= 6 \times \text{side}^{2}$ ; volume $= \text{side}^{3}$ ; then SA:V $= \dfrac{\text{surface area}}{\text{volume}}$ .

Quick example: a cube of side $4$ units: surface area $= 6 \times 4^{2} = 96$ ; volume $= 4^{3} = 64$ ; SA:V $= \dfrac{96}{64} = 1.5 : 1$ . (Compare this with $6{:}1$ for a side of $1$ — confirming the ratio falls as size rises.)

2. Percentage change in mass (osmosis practical)

Formula: percentage change in mass $= \dfrac{\text{change in mass}}{\text{starting mass}} \times 100$ (divide by the starting mass; keep the +/− sign).

Quick example: a potato piece goes from $3.0 \text{ g}$ to $2.7 \text{ g}$ : change $= 2.7 - 3.0 = -0.3 \text{ g}$ ; percentage change $= \dfrac{-0.3}{3.0} \times 100 = -10\%$ (mass lost, so water moved out).

3. Cardiac output (Higher tier)

Higher tier only: cardiac output $=$ stroke volume $\times$ heart rate.

Quick example: stroke volume $80 \text{ cm}^3$ , heart rate $75 \text{ /min}$ : cardiac output $= 80 \times 75 = 6000 \text{ cm}^3/\text{min}$ .

Exam Tip: For every calculation, show your working in steps and state the unit (or note that SA:V is a ratio with no units). Method marks are available even when the final arithmetic slips — but only if your working is visible.

Recap of the Required Practicals

B2 includes practical work whose method and variables are commonly examined. Make sure you can state the independent, dependent and control variables for each.

Practical A: Investigating osmosis in plant tissue (potato)


Aim	See how the concentration of a sugar solution affects osmosis in potato tissue
Independent variable	Concentration of the sugar solution
Dependent variable	Percentage change in mass of the potato cylinders
Control variables	Size of pieces, temperature, time in solution, type of potato, how they are blotted
Key points	Blot dry before each weighing; use equal-sized pieces; calculate percentage change so pieces compare fairly; the zero-change concentration = the concentration inside the cells

Practical B: Measuring transpiration with a potometer


Aim	See how a factor (e.g. wind, light, temperature) affects the rate of water uptake (≈ transpiration)
Independent variable	The factor being investigated (e.g. wind speed)
Dependent variable	Distance the air bubble moves in a set time (rate of water uptake)
Control variables	The other factors (light, temperature, humidity), the same shoot
Key points	Cut the shoot under water and set up airtight so air does not enter the xylem; change one factor at a time; rate $= \dfrac{\text{distance}}{\text{time}}$

Exam Tip: For any practical, be ready to identify the independent variable (what you change), the dependent variable (what you measure) and at least two control variables (what you keep the same for a fair test). These three ideas are worth easy marks right across the specification.

How the Three Transport Processes Connect the Topic

A great deal of B2 comes down to how substances move into, out of and around organisms, so it is worth holding the three transport processes side by side one more time, this time noticing where each appears across the topic.

Process	Where it appears in B2
Diffusion	Oxygen and carbon dioxide across the alveoli; substances across capillary walls; the loss of water vapour from leaves (transpiration)
Osmosis	Water uptake by root hair cells; the osmosis required practical (potato); turgid/flaccid plant cells; guard cells opening/closing stomata
Active transport	Mineral ions into root hair cells; the last of the glucose absorbed in the small intestine

The common thread is that none of these processes is fast enough, on its own and over long distances, to supply a large organism. That is exactly why large organisms combine them with specialised exchange surfaces (to make diffusion and active transport fast at the point of exchange) and transport systems (to carry the substances the rest of the way). If you can place any membrane-transport situation into one of these three rows — and say whether it needs energy — you are well prepared for the membrane-transport questions in B2.

Exam Tip: When a question describes a substance crossing a membrane anywhere in the topic, decide the process with two checks: which direction relative to the gradient, and is it water? Then state whether energy is needed. This single habit answers diffusion/osmosis/active-transport questions reliably.

A Worked Synoptic Problem

Bringing the calculations and concepts together, here is the kind of multi-step problem the exam can set.

Scaling Up: Synthesis and Exam Skills

Scaling Up: Synthesis and Exam Skills

The Big Idea: Scaling Up Creates a Surface-Area Problem

Levels of Organisation

Recap of the B2 Calculations

1. Surface area to volume ratio (cubes)

2. Percentage change in mass (osmosis practical)

3. Cardiac output (Higher tier)

Recap of the Required Practicals

Practical A: Investigating osmosis in plant tissue (potato)

Practical B: Measuring transpiration with a potometer

How the Three Transport Processes Connect the Topic

A Worked Synoptic Problem

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