Resource Demands and Environmental Governance

This lesson examines how superpower resource consumption shapes the environment and how global environmental governance is influenced by the competing interests of superpowers. You will analyse energy security, rare earth minerals, climate negotiations, and the debate about environmental responsibility between developed and developing nations. This lesson addresses the Edexcel Enquiry Question: "What are the environmental implications of superpower status?"

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Superpower Resource Consumption

Superpowers and great powers consume a disproportionate share of the world's resources. This has profound environmental implications and is a source of geopolitical tension.

Energy Consumption

Country	Primary Energy Consumption (exajoules, 2023)	Share of World Total (%)	Per Capita Energy Use (GJ)
China	159.4	27.0	113
USA	93.6	15.9	280
India	41.5	7.0	29
Russia	29.8	5.0	207
Japan	17.1	2.9	137
World total	590	100	74

Key observations:

• China consumes the most energy in absolute terms — but its per capita consumption is less than half the USA's.
• The USA has just 4.2% of the world's population but consumes nearly 16% of global energy.
• India's per capita consumption is a fraction of the USA's or China's, but with 1.44 billion people, even modest increases in living standards will dramatically increase total demand.

Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Country	CO₂ Emissions (Gt, 2023)	Share of World (%)	Per Capita (tonnes)	Cumulative Historical (1751–2023, %)
China	12.6	33	8.9	~15
USA	4.7	12	14.0	~25
India	3.1	8	2.2	~4
Russia	1.8	5	12.4	~7
EU-27	2.6	7	5.8	~22

The distinction between current annual emissions and cumulative historical emissions is critical:

• China is now the world's largest annual emitter, but the USA and EU are responsible for approximately 47% of all CO₂ emitted since the Industrial Revolution.
• Developing countries argue that historical emitters should bear greater responsibility for climate change — this is the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), enshrined in the UNFCCC.

Exam Tip: Always distinguish between current and historical emissions when discussing climate responsibility. China's current annual emissions are the highest, but the USA and Europe have emitted far more in total over time. This distinction is central to the fairness debate in climate negotiations and is frequently examined.

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Energy Security

Energy security refers to a country's ability to access reliable, affordable and sufficient energy supplies. For superpowers, energy security is a strategic priority that shapes foreign policy and geopolitics.

Energy Profiles of Major Powers

Country	Primary Energy Source	Self-Sufficiency	Key Vulnerability
USA	Oil (36%), gas (34%), renewables (13%)	Largely self-sufficient (net energy exporter since 2019 due to shale revolution)	Reliance on oil for transport; geopolitical entanglements in the Middle East
China	Coal (55%), oil (19%), renewables (15%)	Imports ~73% of oil and ~42% of gas	Extreme coal dependency; oil import routes through Strait of Malacca (chokepoint)
Russia	Gas (54%), oil (22%)	Major net energy exporter	Economy dependent on energy exports; vulnerable to low oil/gas prices
India	Coal (55%), oil (28%)	Imports ~85% of oil	Coal dependency; rising demand with limited domestic oil/gas
EU	Mixed (gas 25%, oil 32%, renewables 23%)	Imports ~58% of energy	Historically dependent on Russian gas; now diversifying rapidly

Geopolitics of Oil and Gas

Control of energy resources and supply routes is a defining feature of superpower competition:

• The Strait of Hormuz: Approximately 21 million barrels of oil pass through this narrow strait daily — roughly 21% of global oil consumption. Iran borders the strait and has periodically threatened to close it.
• The Strait of Malacca: Approximately 16 million barrels per day pass through this strait between Malaysia and Indonesia — critical for China's oil imports. China's island-building in the South China Sea and the BRI's China-Pakistan Economic Corridor are partly attempts to reduce this vulnerability.
• The US Shale Revolution: Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) transformed the USA from a major oil importer to a net energy exporter by 2019. This reduced American dependence on Middle Eastern oil and shifted the geopolitical calculus.

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Rare Earth Elements and Critical Minerals

Rare earth elements (REEs) and other critical minerals are essential for modern technology — smartphones, electric vehicle batteries, wind turbines, solar panels, military equipment and semiconductors. Control of these resources is an emerging dimension of superpower competition.

China's Rare Earth Dominance

China dominates the global rare earth supply chain:

• Mining: China produces approximately 70% of the world's rare earth minerals.
• Processing: China processes approximately 90% of the world's rare earth elements.
• Strategic leverage: In 2010, China restricted rare earth exports to Japan during a territorial dispute over the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands, demonstrating the potential for resource weaponisation. In 2023, China imposed export controls on gallium and germanium (critical for semiconductors) in response to US chip export controls.

Critical Mineral	Primary Use	China's Share of Processing (%)
Rare earths	Magnets, electronics, defence	~90
Lithium	EV batteries	~60
Cobalt	EV batteries	~73 (processing); DRC has ~74% of mining
Gallium	Semiconductors	~98
Graphite	EV batteries, nuclear	~65

Resource Nationalism